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THE 


OURNAL  OF 


J 


OPY 


AND 


NATURAL  SCIEN 


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THE    JOURNAL    OF 


THE  POSTAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 


EDITED    BY 

ALFRED     ALLEN, 

Honorary  Secretary  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society. 

ASSISTED    BY 

SEVERAL  MEMBERS   OF  THE  'COMMITTEE. 


VOL.    III. 


Xon^on : 

W.  p.  COLLINS,    157,  GREAT  PORTLAND  STREET. 

:i6atf3 : 

I,  CAMBRIDGE  PLACE. 


iM^dacQ.k 


e^' 


HE  present  issue  is  the  Third  Volume  of  our  Journal 
which  we  send  forth  to  the  world,  assured  that  it  will 
receive  the  same  welcome  in  the  homes  of  Scientific 
men,  both  English  and  Foreign,  which  has  been 
accorded  to  the  previous  volumes. 


The  completion  of  the  third  year  of  the  existence  of 
any  Scientific  Journal,  is,  in  many  respects,  a  season  for  much 
congratulation,  for  it  not  only  marks  a  successful  passage  through 
the  many,  and  in  most  cases,  inevitable  difficulties  which  beset 
the  infancy  of  publication,  but  at  the  same  time,  the  character 
of  the  work  becomes  increasingly  more  decided  and  apparent. 


The  change  of  title  adopted  with  the  present  Volume, 
has  allowed  us  somewhat  to  diverge  from  the  paths  of  pure 
and  simple  Microscopy  ;  whilst  at  the  same  time,  no  article 
has  been  inserted  that  has  not  come  fully  within  our  present 
sphere  ;  and  we  may  now  hope  that  the  merits  of  the  "  Journal 
of  Microscopy  and  Natural  Science  "  are  fully  established  before 
the  public,  and  that  an  abundant  success  will  speedily  reward 
our  labours. 


IV.  PREFACE. 

We  wish  to  add  that  no  pains  will  be  spared  in  the 
future  to  make  this  Journal  worthy  of  its  name,  and  of  the 
Society  which  it  represents,  and  that  the  variety  and  interest 
of  its  articles  will  add  much  to  its  attraction  and  usefulness. 

It  is  hoped,  too,  that  by  this  periodical,  the  advantages 
of  the  "  Postal  Microscopical  Society,"  to  which  the  Journal 
owes  its  origin,  will  become  now  generally  known,  and  that 
the  members  of  the  parent  society  will  endeavour  to  insert 
such  notes  and  drawings  in  the  note-books,  as  will  be  worthy 
of  publication. 

The  Editor  desires  to  thank  those  who  have  so  kindly 
contributed  articles,  and  to  solicit  from  them  and  other  friends, 
further  papers  upon  any  scientific  subject  of  interest. 


THE    JOURNAL    OF    MICROSCOPY 

AND 

NATURAL    SCIENCE: 

the  journal  of 
The   Postal   Microscopical  Society. 


JANUARY,     1884. 


^be  Hbbreee  of  tbc  |pre6i^cnt  of  tbe  postal 
flDicroacopical  Society, 

Carey  P.  Coombs,  M.D.,  at  the  Annual  Meeting, 

Oct.  II,  1883. 

desire,  in  the  first  instance,  to  express  my  great 
indebtedness  to  the  members  of  our  Society,  and 
more  particularly  to  our  worthy  and  painstaking 
Secretary. 

It  is  now  some  years  since  I  heard  indirectly 
that  a  few  amateur  microscopists  had  originated 
and  organised  a  Society  for  the  purpose  of  circu- 
lating such  objects  as  can  be  permanently  mounted 
for  examination.  This  Society  became  the  means 
of  providing  pleasant  and  instructive  evenings  for  many  who  live 
in  localities  where  libraries  and  lectures  on  scientific  subjects  are 
not  to  be  had.  We  can  now,  by  means  of  the  "  Postal  Microsco- 
pical Society,"  enjoy,  at  the  hours  most  convenient  to  ourselves,  the 
specimens  prepared  by  its  members,  and  study  the  notes  on  the 

B 


THE  president's 


same,  accompanied  as  they  so  often  are  by  carefully-drawn  illus- 
trations. This  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  that  Society,  at  whose 
Annual  Meeting  we  have  this  evening  assembled. 

But  there  are  some  disadvantages  in  confining  the  range  of 
objects  exclusively  to  such  things  as  can  be  mounted,  thus 
excluding  that  very  great  source  of  interest  to  the  microscopist — 
the  movements  of  the  lower  members  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms.  I  should  be  glad  to  hear  the  opinions  of  some  of  the 
members  present,  as  to  the  desirability  and  possibility  of  circu- 
lating small  bottles  or  tubes,  containing  specimens  of  Stentors, 
Hydrce,  Floscularice,  and  the  like,  not  omitting  the  favourite 
Water-Mites.  At  the  same  time,  knowing  that  these  things  have 
not  an  equal  charm  for  all,  I  would  propose  that  members  who 
are  fortunate  enough  to  find  colonies  of  such  genera  as  Melicerta, 
Stephanoceros^  or  Stentor^  be  asked  to  announce  the  fact  in  the 
Note-Books,  and  in  our  "  Quarterly  Journal."  Then,  with  the 
understanding  that  the  cost  of  postage  be  defrayed  by  the 
member  desiring  the  object,  a  specimen  could  be  obtained  with 
little  trouble.  I  suggest  this  partly  to  introduce  a  new  field  for 
study,  because  there  is  a  tendency  to  repeat  the  objects  circulated; 
if  the  very  same  thing  is  not  sent  round  over  and  over  again,  at 
any  rate,  there  are  certain  kinds  of  specimens  which  appear  in 
almost  every  box. 

Many,  if  not  all  of  us,  regret  that  we  so  often  allow  the 
books  and  collections  of  slides  to  pass  through  our  hands 
without  additions ;  but  so  far  from  this  being  any  indication 
of  slight  to  the  senders  of  objects,  it  is  often  inevitable,  and 
occurs  sometimes  from  want  of  time,  sometimes  because  the 
notes  already  given  are  so  full  as  to  leave  no  room  for  additions, 
and,  now  and  then,  because  a  member's  special  line  of  study 
is  not  represented. 

In  thinking  about  a  subject  on  which  to  make  a  few  remarks 
this  evening,  it  occurred  to  me  that  our  microscopes  might  be 
well  employed  in  examining  occasionally  the  food  we  eat,  or  the 
clothes  we  wear.  Take,  for  example,  that  most  objectionable, 
but  at  the  same  time  exceedingly  interesting  subject,  the  Trichina. 
This  irrepressible  and  inquisitive  little  being,  who  requires  his  host 
not  only  to  lodge  but  to  board  him,  and  to  board  and  lodge  not 


ANNUAL  ADDRESS.  6 

himself  alone,  but  his  descendants  to  an  unlimited  number  of 
generations,  all  of  whom  he  expects  to  be  included  in  the  enter- 
tainment. The  Trichince.  were  first  seen  with  the  naked  eye 
(in  1835)  by  a  surgeon  at  Bartholomew's  Hospital ;  they  were 
also  noticed  in  dissecting-rooms  by  other  persons,  about  the 
same  time.  Their  name  was  given  by  Professor  Owen.  When 
thoroughly  domiciled,  the  muscle  which  they  have  colonised 
looks  as  if  it  had  been  well  peppered,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
small,  gritty,  greyish-white  granules,  which  are  the  roundish, 
partly  calcified  cysts,  containing  the  entozoa. 

During  an  epidemic,  which  extended  over  some  years,  in  the 
duchy  of  Brunswick,  nearly  1,000  persons  suffered  from  the 
trichinous  disease,  but  its  nature  was  not  clearly  ascertained  until 
afterwards.  Then  a  gentleman,  who  had  suffered  during  the 
epidemic,  consented  to  have  some  of  his  own  muscle  removed 
for  examination,  and  under  the  microscope  the  Trichhice  were 
seen.  (This  procedure  was  simplified  some  few  years  ago  by  a 
physician,  who  contrived  a  kind  of  muscle-tester,  viz.,  a  small 
silver  tube  i-ioth  of  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter,  containing 
a  kind  of  piston  with  a  sharp  point,  and  a  hook  like  a  lady's 
crochet-hook.  The  sharp  point  enables  the  instrument  to  be 
inserted  into  a  muscle,  and  before  the  whole  is  withdrawn  the 
hook  is  first  protruded  and  then  drawn  into  the  ensheathing  tube, 
and,  passing  through  a  slot  in  the  side  of  the  tube,  takes  with  it  a 
fragment  of  the  muscle  in  which  it  was  imbedded.  Probably  the 
quantity  thus  removed  would  be  too  small  for  estimating  the  actual 
amount  of  the  diseased  condition,  but  is  useful  to  ascertain  the  fact 
of  the  disease.)  It  is  comforting  to  know  that  in  this  country  the 
disease  is  extremely  rare,  and  that  most  of  the  meat  brought  to 
English  tables  has  been  cooked  at  a  temperature  high  enough  to 
kill  all  the  T?'ickmcd  that  may  have  been  present. 

One  other  unpleasant  meat  colonist  is  the  "  pork-measle," 
which  is  the  tape-worm  in  its  larval  state.  The  pig  who  houses 
these  larvae  has  swallowed  the  eggs  in  his  food  or  water,  and 
after  being  hatched  they  have  migrated  from  the  viscera  into  the 
tissues,  enlarging  and  developing  into  ovoid  hydatids.  In 
dimension  these  larvae  vary  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of 
a  bean,  and  they  resemble  bags  of  water,  having  this  peculiarity, 


THE  president's 


that  though  the  containing  cavity  is  oval,  the  cysticercus  itself  is 
shaped  like  a  soda-water  bottle,  with  two  or  three  extra  lengths  of 
neck ;  and  the  manifest  moral  of  this  tale  is  that  when  meat 
contains  oval  cavities  about  ^ — Y^  an  inch  in  length,  filled  with 
fluid,  it  should  be  rejected  as  unfit  for  food,  but  will  probably 
reward  careful  inspection  under  a  two-inch  object-glass.  Those 
persons  who  swallow  "  pork-measles  "  are  likely  to  become  the 
subjects  of  tape-worm.  Happily  the  eaters  of  meat,  when 
thoroughly  cooked,  find  that  the  germs  and  all  lurking  traces  of 
animal  life  are  destroyed,  while  those  who  venture  on  meat  which 
has  only  known  a  boiling-point  heat,  may  find  these  germs 
developing  after  all. 

The  starches  which  form  so  large  a  part  of  our  daily  food 
have,  as  is  well  known,  a  characteristic  reaction  with  free  iodine, 
and  an  equally  characteristic  behaviour  with  polarised  light ;  the 
black  cross  in  each  starch  grain  becomes  coloured  when  a  selenite 
is  placed  under  the  object.  A  slide  which  has  been  sent  round 
the  Society  this  year  shows  the  cells  in  their  natural  arrangement 
in  the  potato  ;  fortunately  the  tuber  can  be  easily  cut  into 
the  thin  slices  required  to  show  them.  And  still  more 
recently  some  capital  sections  of  wheat-grains  have  been  circu- 
lated. In  these  the  purple  stain  used  by  the  mounter  had  attached 
itself  to  the  living  tissues  of  the  seed,  while  the  starch-cells 
were  unaffected. 

The  largest  starch-cells  are  those  of  the  Carina  edulis ,  a 
relative  of  the  arrowroot  plant.  Why  does  the  starch  grain  show 
the  concentric  lines  with  bright  lights  and  a  dark  cross  with  the 
Nicol  prism  ?  The  fine  lines  are  the  marks  of  the  successive  layers 
of  growth,  and  are,  in  fact,  the  edges  of  a  series  of  minute  ridges. 
Cold  water  has  little  effect  on  starch,  but  hot  water  causes  the 
cells  to  swell.  Thus  the  wall  is  ruptured,  and  the  contents 
escape ;  this  may  be  watched  under  the  quarter-inch  objective. 

Starch  is  a  substance  worthy  of  a  little  more  extended  notice, 
seeing  that  we  swallow  it  in  one  form  or  another  to  an  amount 
once  or  twice  the  weight  of  our  bodies  every  year.  How 
much  starch  does  an  ordinary  adult  consume  annually  in  the  form 
of  potatoes  alone  ?  I  imagine,  from  the  large  and  heaped  dishes 
which  I  see  on  the  tables  of  artisans  and  labouring  men,  that 


ANNUAL  ADDRESS.  O 

one-third  of  a  ton  (750  pounds)  would  be  a  fair  estimate  of  the 
yearly  consumption  of  this  vegetable  by  a  healthy,  hard-working 
adult,  and  I  suppose  that  such  a  quantity  would  yield  about  170 
pounds  of  starch.  The  arrangement  of  the  starch-cells  in  the 
potato  is,  as  I  have  before  said,  not  difficult  to  find,  and  in  this 
part  of  the  country  thin  sections  of  some  of  the  tubers  would 
reveal  the  potato  fungus — -Perotiospora  infestans.  Of  this  we  have 
had  two  interesting  professional  mounts  this  year  in  the  Society's 
boxes,  showing  the  resting  spores,  which  appear  to  be  the  real 
source  of  the  mischief,  and  the  fungus  itself  could  also  be 
observed  projecting  from  the  stigmata  of  the  leaves. 

In  examining  different  kinds  of  meal  with  the  intention  of 
referring  to  them  in  this  paper,  I  found  that  the  chief  distinction 
was  in  the  size  of  the  starch-cells  ;  this  was  marked  in  some 
cases  by  the  fact  that  starches  from  different  sources  were 
contained  in  the  same  specimen,  mixed  in  grinding  or  in 
conveyance.  Identification  of  the  starch-cells  in  any  given 
sample,  is,  I  believe,  generally  managed  by  comparison  with 
standard  slides.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  some  of  the 
condiments,  in  which  the  presence  of  foreign  matters  is  to  be 
detected  by  an  eye  accustomed  to  see  the  genuine  article  over  and 
over  again.  Mustard,  as  is  well  known,  is  a  mixture,  and  contains 
the  pounded  tissues  of  several  plants,  which,  when  so  mixed, 
are  by  no  means  easy  to  distinguish  and  identify. 

Common  Salt,  when  crystallised  on  a  slide,  makes  a  pretty 
object,  but  one  not  easy  to  keep  in  its  pristine  beauty.  Sugar, 
on  the  other  hand,  mounts  well,  and  forms  a  very  fine  object  for 
the  polariscope ;  one  was  lately  circulated  in  our  boxes.  From 
sugar  our  thoughts  naturally  pass  to  preserves,  and  here  the 
microscopist  will  find  much  that  is  interesting,  and  perhaps  also 
instructive,  if  he  buys  a  sample  of  preserves  and  examines  it 
carefully ;  that  is,  supposing  he  is  well  acquainted  with  the  minute 
anatomy  of  turnips  and  other  inexpensive  roots. 

In  speaking  of  textile  fabrics,  I  must  again  mention  the 
comparative  method,  and  for  this  purpose  reference  slides  of  pure 
materials  should  be  prepared.  For  a  standard  slide  of  cotton 
place  a  few  fibres  of  cotton-wool  on  a  glass  slip,  and  cover  with  a 
little  fluid  balsam.     A  standard  slide  of  silk  may  be  made  of  an 


6  THE  president's  ANNUAL  ADDRESS. 

untwisted  strand  of  sewing  silk,  or  much  better  of  a  few  fragments 
of  the  raw  material,  which  may  be  had  from  a  silk-worm  fancier,  and 
which  can  be  mounted  in  the  same  way.  These,  with  some  raw 
flax  fibres  from  a  piece  of  genuine  linen,  a  little  sheep's  wool,  and 
some  rabbit's  and  seal's  fur,  will  form  a  useful  set  of  standard  slides. 

Cotton  comes  from  the  pod  of  the  cotton  plant.  Each  fibre  is 
like  a  twisted  strap,  or  waved  ribbon,  which  enables  it  to  obtain 
a  hold  or  grip  on  its  neighbours.  A  similar  hold  is  obtained  in 
woollen  fibres  by  the  projecting  scales,  which  are  so  familiar  to 
us  in  the  human  hair,  and  the  interlocking  of  these  scales 
produces  in  cloth  the  effect  known  as  felting. 

The  character  of  a  fabric  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  cotton 
and  wool  is  thus  at  once  revealed,  when  the  texture  has  been 
broken  up  and  spread  on  a  slide.  (In  describing  these  structures 
the  term  "  fibre "  is  applied  to  the  simplest  elements  to  which 
any  tissue  can  be  reduced.)  Linen  fibres  consist  of  the  fibro. 
vascular  bundles  of  the  Limiin  stem,  which  have  been  separated 
by  beating,  by  which  operation  they  are  not  only  divided,  but 
bruised  and  softened.  When  examined  under  the  microscope 
just  after  removal  from  the  plant,  the  fibres  are  smooth 
cylinders  of  almost  uniform  diameter  ;  but  after  the  process  of 
*'  scutching,"  as  the  preparatory  beating  is  called,  each  fibre 
shows  several  transverse  fractures.  Cotton  and  linen  fabrics  are 
thus  distinguishable  by  the  twisted-tape-like  appearance  of  the 
former,  and  the  resemblance  of  the  latter  to  bruised  straw. 

It  is  a  more  important  matter  to  be  able  clearly  to  determine 
what  is  and  what  is  not  silk ;  the  chief  admixture  in  fabrics  of 
this  kind  is  with  cotton,  whose  characters  have  just  been  noted. 
The  fibre  of  silk  is  smooth,  apparently  double,  and  of  uniform 
diameter,  the  two  halves  of  each  thread  being  produced  from 
different  spinnerets  of  the  silk-worm.  Silk  is  a  viscid  secretion, 
which  solidifies  as  it  exudes. 

Fur  is  worthy  of  examination.  Very  much  of  that  which  is  sold 
for  trimming  ladies'  dress  is  dyed  to  resemble  the  fur  of  the 
animal  whose  name  it  bears,  but  has  really  come  from  the  back 
of  the  rabbit.  This  may  be  proved  by  mounting  a  few  of  the  hairs 
in  glycerine  jelly.  The  hair  of  the  rabbit  appears  very  much  like 
a  ladder.     Seal  fur  is  not  of  uniform  diameter,  and  somewhat 


ADDRESS  ON    RESIGNING  THE   CHAIR.  7 

resembles  the  stem  of  a  hazel,  or  other  branch  whose  buds  are 
regularly  alternate. 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen, — I  hoped  to  have  read  this  paper  in 
person,  but  have  been  prevented,  and  consequently  must  entrust 
the  reading  of  it  to  my  predecessor  in  the  Presidential 
Chair.  I  trust  that  you  will  have  a  good  meeting,  and  express 
very  sincere  regret  for  my  unavoidable  absence. 


abt)re60  on  IReeionincj  tbe  Cbain 

By  Arthur  Hammond,  F.L.S. 


Ladies  and  Gentlemen, — 

IN  drawing  up  for  your  information  a  short  account  of  the 
work  done  by  the  members  of  our  Society  during  the  past 
twelve  months,  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  great  assistance 
afforded  me  by  the  valuable  copy  of  the  contents  of  the  Note- 
Books  supplied  to  me  by  our  Hon.  Secretary,  Mr.  Allen.  This 
appears  to  be  quite  an  incidental  portion  of  the  services  rendered 
to  the  Society  by  that  gentleman,  and  I  am  quite  sure  that  if  any 
of  our  members  have  the  curiosity  to  look  at  the  bulky  bundle  of 
manuscripts  to  which  I  refer,  they  will  agree  with  me  that  the 
duties  which  devolve  upon  the  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  "  Postal 
Microscopical  Society  "  are  by  no  means  a  light  undertaking.  It 
would  be  impracticable  to  notice  all  the  communications  which 
appear  in  the  Note-Books  ;  and  a  selection  therefore  becoming 
desirable,  I  trust  if  any  important  omission  is  made,  that  I  may 
receive  a  kindly  pardon.  Referring  to  the  Rules  of  our  Society, 
as  stated  in  the  part  of  our  Journal  published  in  December  of 
last  year,  I  find  that  the  purpose  of  the  Society  "  shall  be  the 
circulation,  study,  and  discussion  of  Microscopic  objects,  and  the 
general  advancement  of  Microscopy  and  the  Natural  Sciences 
among  its  members,"  and  much  of  the  utiUty  of  the  work   done, 


8  ADDRESS  ON 

will,  I  venture  to  think,  be  found  embodied  in  the  concluding 
words  of  this  paragraph — "  among  its  members." 

Work  of  an  exclusively  original  nature  scarcely  comes  within 
our  scope,  and  is  perhaps  better  fitted  to  find  publicity  in  the 
records  of  our  learned  societies  ;  and  from  the  majority  of  our 
members  such  work  is  perhaps  scarcely  to  be  expected.  We  find, 
accordingly,  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  Notes  in  our 
Note-Books  are  evidently  intended  by  the  writers  for  the  informa- 
tion of  their  fellow  workers,  who  may  not,  perhaps,  have  the  time 
or  opportunity  to  look  up  works  of  reference  for  themselves. 
Far  be  it  from  me  to  deprecate  a  practice  from  which  I  have 
myself  so  frequently  derived  pleasure  and  instruction,  or  to  do 
otherwise  than  recognise,  that  by  this  means  the  objects  of  the 
Society  are  largely  fulfilled.  Still,  I  think  that  where  adequate 
study  has  been  made  of  the  subject,  there  will  always  occur,  as 
indeed  there  frequently  do  occur,  observations  of  an  original 
nature  not  necessarily  of  scientific  value,  but  such  as  must 
greatly  increase  the  interest  with  which  the  communications  are 
likely  to  be  read,  something  beyond  what  we  may  expect  to  find 
even  in  the  best  books  of  reference;  such  observations,  I  may  add, 
make  the  subject  in  some  sense  the  author's  own.  While  gladly 
recognising  the  extent  to  which  these  attributes  are  found  in  the 
work  of  many  of  our  members,  and  the  excellence  of  the 
illustrations  with  which  they  are  frequently  adorned,  I  take  this 
opportunity  of  indicating  one  direction  in  which  I  venture  to 
think  improvement  is  still  possible. 

I  have  drawn  up  and  annexed  a  classified  list  of  the  various 
subjects  treated  of  in  the  Note-Books,  and  shall  content  myself 
here  with  mentioning  a  few  which  seem  specially  worthy  of  notice. 

I  think  it  will  scarcely  admit  of  question  that  the  notes 
and  illustrations  of  Messrs.  Elcock  and  Malcomson  on  the 
Foraminifera  must  claim  the  first  place  in  any  notice  of  the  work 
of  our  Society.  From  the  former  of  these  gentlemen  we  have 
six  communications  on  this  subject,  containing  full  and  most 
interesting  details  on  the  species  treated  of,  and  forming  a 
valuable  introduction  to  the  study  of  these  beautiful  forms  of 
lowly  organised  existence,  especially  to  those  of  us  who  were  able 
to  give  them  careful  attention  in  connection  with  the  slides.     The 


RESIGNING  THE  CHAIR.  9 

difference  between  the  Arenaceous,  Porcellanous,  and  Hyaline 
Groups  have  been  well  exemplified,  and  the  curious  phenomenon 
of  isomorphism  adequately  pointed  out. 

Mr.  S.  M.  Malcomson's  notes  on  the  same  subject  have 
worthily  seconded  those  of  Mr.  Elcock,  special  reference  being 
made  in  the  case  of  Bigeneritia  to  the  dimorphic  growth  of  the 
shell,  from  an  early  biserial  arrangement  to  a  straight  axis  at  a 
subsequent  period.  Mr.  Malcomson  is  also  the  author  of  some 
valuable  notes  on  the  Ostracoda  in  reference  to  a  slide  of  Cypris 
virens. 

Occasionally  we  find  that  the  notes  give  rise  to  useful 
discussions  on  disputed  points,  as  in  the  case  of  Rev.  W.  Locock's 
notes  on  the  mode  of  attachment  of  flies'  feet ;  and  the  identity  of 
a  supposed  Cidaris  spine  by  Miss  Henty.  We  may  note  how 
sometimes  a  slide  that  has  been  sent  round  the  Society's  boxes 
usque  ad  nauseam  without  any  information,  may  suddenly  become 
valuable  by  a  little  expenditure  of  time  and  patience  upon  it, 
as  for  instance  Mr.  D.  G.  Prothero's  and  Mr.  E.  Hopes'  sHdes 
of  Spinal  Cord. 

Among  the  Notes  relating  to  the  Crustacea^  we  find  one 
written  by  our  late  lamented  friend.  Col.  H.  Basevi,  viz.,  that  on 
Palinurus  vulgaris.  The  tribe  of  insects  as  usual  attracts  a 
considerable  number  of  writers,  many  of  whom  have  sent  us 
interesting  communications,  from  which  it  is  difficult  to  make  a 
selection.  Those  of  Mr.  C.  F.  George  and  Mr.  R.  H.  Moore  on 
the  Water  Mites  may  perhaps  be  mentioned.  The  Infusoria  do 
not  appear  to  attract  all  the  attention  they  deserve,  perhaps  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  preparing  good  slides  such  as  will  give 
any  adequate  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  creature  during  life. 
A  very  successful  attempt,  however,  in  this  direction  comes 
recently  from  the  fertile  pen  of  the  Rev.  C.  H.  Waddell,  on  what 
appears  to  be  Epistylis  Hicablis.  Mr.  A.  Milroy's  slides  and 
notes  on  Morbid  Anatomy  are  welcome  contributions  in  a  field 
otherwise  almost  unknown  to  our  members. 

In  the  department  of  structural  Botany,  the  signature  of  the 
Rev.  W.  H.  Lett  meets  us  with  marked  frequency,  as  does  that  of 
Mr.  C.  V.  Smith,  whose  beautiful  slides  we  have  so  frequently 
admired.     A  very  interesting  note  on   Utricularia  and  its  curious 


10  ADDRESS   ON 

bladders  reaches  us  from  Mr.  G.  Norman.  Amongst  the  Algae 
again  Mr.  Lett  comes  to  the  front  with  notes  on  Cladophora^ 
Nostoc,  Zygnema,  and  HyalotJieca.  The  Micro  Fungi  are  taken  up 
by  Messrs.  Whitefoot,  Steward,  and  Norman  ;  the  latter  has  also 
a  very  interesting  paper  in  the  Journal  on  the  Sap  role gniecE.  Mr. 
J.  C.  Christie  represents  Micro-Geology,  and  Mr.  H.  M.  Klaassen 
gives  us  an  account  of  crystals  deposited  upon  rounded  grains  of 
sand.  I  think  we  have  reason  to  congratulate  ourselves  upon  the 
frequency  with  which  the  names  of  lady  members  appear  in  our 
notes,  those  of  Mrs.  Cowen,  and  the  Misses  Glascott,  Henty 
Hippisley,  and  Jarrett,  appearing  prominently. 

Notes  have  been  written  on  the  following  :— 
VERTEBRATE    ANIMALS. 

Mundy,  G.  B.,  on  Upper  Jaw  of  Cat. 

Tutte,  E.,  on  Skin  of  Chameleon,  followed  by  Mrs.  A.  Pennington. 

Prothero,  D.  G.,  On  Small  Intestine  of  Cat. 

Waddell,  C.  H.,  on  the  Pollan,  or  Fresh- Water  Herring. 

Hall,  R.,  on  Tongue  of  Cat. 

Prothero,  D.  G.,  on  Spinal  Cord,  followed  by  A.  Hammond  and 

H.  F.  Parsons. 
Hope,  E.,  Spinal  Cord. 
Narramore,  W.,  on  the  Supra  Renal  Capsule. 

„  Skin  of  Hand. 

CRUSTACEA. 

Epps,  H.,  on  Barnacles. 

McKee,  W.  S.,  Glass  Hand  of  Balanus. 

Hammond,  A.,  on  the  Structure  and  Economy  of  the  Daphnia, 

(Presidential  Address,  Journal). 
Malcomson,  S.  M.,  on  the  Ostracoda  (Cypris  virens). 
Basevi,  H.,  Palinurus  vulgaris 
Lovett,  E.,  Squilla  Demarestii. 

INSECT  STRUCTURE  AND  HISTORY. 

Bostock,  E.,  Corethra  plumicornis. 
Moore,  R.  H.,  Dolichopus  nobilitatis  (gen.  organs  of). 
„  Stenopterix  hirundinis. 


5) 
5) 


RESIGNING  THE  CHAIR.  11 

Wright,  John,  Diamond  Beetle. 
Fitch,  F.,  The  Fly  (Journal). 
Hammond,  A.,  Drone  Fly,  Abdomen  of. 

Notonecta  striata 

Stratiomys  Chameleon  (skin  of  larva). 

Maggot  of  Blow  Fly  (Journal). 
Appleton,  W.  M.,  Eggs  of  Gad  Fly,  followed  by  C.  F.  Coombs. 
Cox,  C.  F.,  Antennae  of  Gnats. 
Tait,  W.  C,  Nycteribia  and  Hippobosca. 
Bygott,  R.,  Sting  of  Wasp,  followed  by  C.  F.  George. 
Smith,  J.,  Parasites  on  Wing  of  Moth. 
Hope,  B.,  Hairs  of  Larva  of  Vapour  Moth. 
Turtle,  F.  L.,  Psychoda  phalsenoides. 
Fenton,  M.,  Antennae  of  Vapour  Moth. 
Horsley,  W.  H.,  Aphrophora  spumaria. 
Wilson,  H.  J.,  Amopheles  bifurcatus. 

Scales  of  Lepisma. 

Ornithomya  avicularia. 
Locock,  Rev.  W.,  Foot  of  Breeze-Fly,  followed  by  R.  S.  Hudson, 

S.  R.  Barrett,  A.  Pennington,  and  R.  Smith. 
Bailey,  Rev.  G.,  Forficula  auricularia. 
Green,  Rev.  J.  H.,  Velum  and  Strigilis  of  Bee. 
Epps,  H.,  Leg  of  Curculio. 

,,         Elytron  of  Cricket. 
Crewdson,  Rev.  G.,  Head  of  Cockroach,  followed  by  Rev.  E.  T. 

Stubbs. 
Jarrett,  E.  E.,  Chrysis  ignita. 

„  Forest  Fly,  Hippobosca  equina. 

ARACHNIDA. 

George,  C.  F.,  Arrenurus  viridis,  followed  by  R.  H.  Moore. 

„  Eylais  extendens. 

„  Rhyncolophidae. 

„  On  the  Palpi  of  Fresh-Water  Mites,  as  Aids  to  dis- 

tinguishing Sub-Families  (Journal). 
Bostock,  E.J  Tegeocranus  latus. 

„  ,,  elongatus. 

Hunter,  E.,  Desmodex  folliculorum. 


5) 


12  ADDRESS   ON 

Barrett,  S.  R.,  Gamasus  from  Fly. 

Stokes,  A.  W.,  Gamasus  coleoptratorum. 

Hammond,  A.,  Phalangium. 

Halsey,  J.,  Sea-Spiders. 

Baddeley,  W.  H.,  Sting  of  Scorpion. 

Wilson,  J.  H.,  Spinnerets  of  Garden-Spider. 

ECHINODERMATA. 

Henty,  M.  A.,  on  Cidaris  Spine,  followed  by  R.  H.  Moore,  C.  N. 

Peel,  and  E.  E.  Jarrett. 
Green,  Rev.  J.  H.,  Tube  Feet  of  Echinus  sphasra. 
Glascott,  L.  S.,  Spines  of  Echinus,  followed  by  B.  Bryant. 
Green,  Rev.  J.  H.,  Skin  of  Pentacta. 

MOLLUSCA. 

Henty,  M.  A.,  Palate  of  Haliotis. 

Ridpath,  D.,  Palate  of  Limpet. 

Cooke,  J.  H.,  Palate  of  Whelk. 

Tutte,  E.,  on  Oyster-Shell,  followed  by  Hon.  J.  G.  P.  Vereker. 

Parsons,  H.  F.,  Ammonites  plavicostatus. 

POLYZOA. 

Hippisley,  M.  S.,  Amathia  lendigera. 
Brown,  G.  D.,  ditto. 

„  Fossil  Polyzoa  from  Suffolk  Crag. 

.  „  Eschara  foliacea. 

Pennington,  Annie,  Bicellaria  tuba. 
Green,  Rev.  J.  H.,  Menipea  cirrhata. 

,,  Scrupocellaria  reptans,  followed  by  G.  D.  Brown. 

Barrett,  S.  R.,  Polyzoary  from  Agullhas  Bank. 
Burbidge,  W.  H.,  Bowerbankia  imbricata. 

ZOOPHYTES. 

Pennington,  A.,  Aglaophenia  pluma. 
Hippisley,  M.  S.,  „  carnata. 

Brown,  G.  D.,  Gorgonia 

Partridge,  T.,  Hydra  fusca  swallowing  a  Naid. 
Fenton,  M.,  Plumularia  cristata. 


RESIGNING  THE   CHAIR.  13 

Lyall,  T.,  Salicornaria. 

Searle,  A.  H.,  Sertularia  pumila. 

INFUSORIA. 

Grenfell,  J.  G.,  Ceratium  tripos,  a  Cilio-flagellate  Infusorian. 
Waddell,  Rev.  C.  H.,  Infusorian  on  Potamogeton  Leaf,  followed 
by  S.  Mills  and  J.  G.  Grenfell. 

FORAMINIFERA. 

Elcock,  C.,  On  the  Genus  Nonionina. 

„  Foraminifera  from  Atlantic  Dredgings. 

„  Truncatulina  lobata. 

„  On  the  Phenomenon  of  Isomorphism  in  different  groups 

of  Foraminifera. 

„  Haplophragmium  pseudospiralis. 

,,  Pulvinulina  Menardii. 

Malcomson,  S.  M.,  Bolivina  dilatata. 

„  „         Bigenerina  nodosaria  as  illustrative  of  Dimor- 

phic Growth. 

„  „         On  the  Genus  Miliolina. 

„  „         Textularia  sagittula. 

Bailey,  Rev.  G,  Foraminifera  in  Red  Chalk. 
Pennington,  A.,  NummuUtes. 

MORBID    ANATOMY. 

Milroy,  A.,  Amyloid  Disease  of  Liver. 
„  False  Pigmentation  of  Lung. 

„  Acute  Cirrhosis  of  Liver. 

Crowther,  G.  H.,  Morbid  appearance  resembling  Caries  produced 

in  Human  Tooth  by  prolonged  Maceration  in 
a  solution  of  Sugar. 
Cooper,  F.  W.,  Bacillus  anthracis. 

STRUCTURAL     BOTANY. 

Lett,  Rev.  W.  H.,  Arctium  lappa,  Burdock,  Section. 
„  Acrostichum  alcicorne. 

„  Fraxinus  excelsior,  Section. 

„  Fern  Spores,  Todea  superba. 

„  „  Dicksonia  antarctica. 


14  ADDRESS  ON 

Lett,  Rev.  W.  H.,  Hippuris  vulgaris. 
„  Paeony  Petiole. 

„  Utricularia  Bladders. 

Smith,  R ,  Sections  of  AVheat  through  the  Germ. 
Jarrett,  E.  E,,  Yucca,  Cuticle  of. 
Smith,  C.  v.,  Fall  of  Leaf:  How  accomplished. 

„  Maize  Root,  Section  through  growing  point. 

„  Sieve  Tubes  of  Cucumber. 

„  Sori  of  Male  Fern. 

Henty,  M.  A.,  Pollen,  Difference  between  Wind  and  Lisect  ferti- 
lised. 
Waddell,  Rev.  C.  H.,  Fern  Spores,  Todea  superba. 

„  „  Neprolepsis  Davallioides. 

Fisher,  J.  W.,  on  Withered  Leaves  (Journal). 
Cowen,  A.,  Raphides  in  Lesser  Duckweed. 
Hippisley,  M.  S.,  Fern  Spores,  Dicksonia  Antarctica. 

„  Utricularia  Bladders. 

Klaassen,  H.  M.,  Milkwort,  Polygala  vulgaris 
Grenfell,  J.  G.,  Ramenta  of  Fern. 
Halsey,  Rev.  J.,  Seeds  of  Spergularia  marginata. 

„  Seeds  of  Sea  Campion,  Silene  maritima. 

Holmes,  C.  D.,  St.  John's  Wort-Leaf,  Perforations  in. 
Hunter,  E.,  Sphseraphides  in  Echino-cactus. 
Barrett,  S.  R.,  Stamens  of  Sore  Eye  Plant,  followed  by  W.  C.  Tait. 
Vereker,  J.  G.  P.,  Thistle  Seed. 

,,  Epidermis  of  Maize. 

Norman,  George,  Utricularia  Bladders. 
Kempson,  A.,  Alpine  Rose,  Leaf  of. 
Rookledge,  J.,  Alsia,  Stamens  of. 
Cheesman,  W.  N.,  Butcher's  Broom. 

„  Duckweed,  Reproductive  Organ  of. 

„  Utricularia  Bladders. 

Epps,  H.,  Section  of  Cocoa-Bean. 

,,        Anthers  of  London  Pride. 
Appleton,  W.  M.,  Section  of  Cherry  Stone. 
Moore.  R.  H.,  Durio  zibethinus. 

,,  Section  of  Mistletoe. 

Fisher,  W.  J.,  Eupactis  latifolia. 


RESIGNING  THE   CHAIR.  15 

MOSSES. 

Cheesman,  W.  N.,  Aulacomnium  androgynum. 

,,  Pottia  minutula,  followed  by  C.  H.  Waddell. 

Waddell,  Rev.  C.  H.,  Bryum  Wahlenbergii. 

„  Hedwigia  ciliata. 

Fisher,  J.  W.,  Lycopodium  clavatum,  followed  by  H.  F.  Parsons 

and  H.  Epps. 
Gough,  T.,  Sphagnum. 
Cowen,  A.,  Schistostega  pinnata,  followed  by  H.  F.  Parsons. 

ALG>E. 

Hudson,  R.  S.,  Bacillus  tuberculosis. 

Parsons,  H.  F.,  Batrachospermum,  to  mount. 

Cheesman,    VV.   N.,  Chara,  Reproductive  Organs  of,  followed  by 

H.  Pocklington. 
Lett,  W.  H.,  Gloiotricha  gigantea,  followed  by  L.  S.  Glascott. 

„  Cladophora  glomerata. 

„  Nostoc  commune. 

„  Zygnema  cruciatum. 

Jarrett,  E.  E.,  Draparnaldia  plumosa. 
Lett,  H.  W.,  Hyalotheca  dissiUens.  Desmidiaceae. 
Dunlop,  M.  F.,  Cosmarium.  „ 

FUNGI. 

Whitefoot,  Thos.,  Strawberry  Brand,  Aregma  obtusatum. 

Bramble  Brand,  Phragmidium  bulbosum. 
Triphragmium   ulmariae,  Meadow-Sweet  Brand, 
followed  by  J.  W.  Steward. 
Steward,  J.  W.,  Aregma  obtusatum. 
Puccinia  glechomatis. 
Violet  Smut,  Urocystis  violse. 
Epps,  H.,  Coffee  Fungus. 
Maynard,  H.  L.,  Geoglossum. 
Norman,  Geo.,  Nectria  Cinnabarina. 
Peziza  polytriche. 
Spumaria  alba. 

Waddell,  Rev.  C.  H.,  Peronospora  infestans,  followed  by  C.   P. 
Coombs, 


16  ADDRESS   ON 

Lett,  Rev.  H.  W.,  Stemonitis  fusca. 
Norman,  Geo.,  on  the  Saprolegnie^e  (Journal). 

DIATOMS. 

Peal,  C.  N.^  Diatoms  to  mount  dry. 
Brown,  G.  D.,  Diatoms  from  Hong  Kong. 

„  ,,         from  Moron. 

Moore,  R.  H.,       ,,         from  Ancient  Roman  Baths. 
Baddeley,  W.  H.,  Rhizosolenia  styliformis. 

„  Triceratium  undulatum. 

Tutte,  E.,  Santa  Monica  Earth,  a  Communication  from  the  San 
Francisco  Microscopical  Society,  through  the  late  Mr. 
Nicholson. 

MICRO.    GEOLOGY. 

Parsons,  H.  F.,  Section  of  Belemnite. 

,,  Silt  from  Sutton  Bridge. 

Jarrett,  E.  E.,  Bryozoic  Rock  from  Clifton. 
Cowen,  A.,  Sunstone. 

„  Zeolite. 

Klaassen,  H.  M.,  Crystals  deposited  on  rounded  grains  of  sand. 
Crewdson,  Rev.  G.,  Carboniferous  Limestone. 
Ford,  J.,  Sections  of  Sigillaria. 
Moore,   R.   H.,  Cup   Coral,  Cyathophyllum,   followed  by  H.   F. 

Parsons. 
Christie,  J.  C,  Dolerite. 

„  „         Porphyritic. 

„  Horneblend  Schist. 

„  Norite. 

„  Graphic  Granite,  followed  by  J.  Smith. 

Smith,  J.,  Eozoon  Canadense,  followed  by  S.  M.  Malcomson. 

„         Endothyra  ammonoides. 
Gough,  T.,  Gneiss. 

,,  Syenite  from  Cleopatra's  Needle. 

Dannatt,  Geo.,  Serpentine. 
Goodwin,  W.,  Scotch  Kieselguhr. 


RESIGNING  THE   CHAIR.  17 

VARIOUS. 

Hammond,   A.,   Tubifex    rivulorum,    Reproductive   Organs   of 

(Journal). 
Henty,  M.  A.,  Boring  Sponge,  followed  by  E.  E.  Jarrett,    Rev. 

J.  H.  Green,  and  G.  D.  Brown. 
Basevi,  H.,  Gemmules  of  Sponge. 

Hunter,  E.,  Bichromate  of  Potash  for  Cleaning  Diatoms. 
Cowen,  A.,  On  the  Application  of  the  Microscope  to  Geological 

Research  (Journal). 
Pocklington,  H.,  Cyanotype  Printing. 

„  To  Prepare  Cuticles  of  Plants. 

Smith,  J.,  Calcareous  Substance  from  Boiler. 
Epps,    H.,   on  the  Size  of  Dust  Particles  of  Wheat  and  Coal 

(Journal). 
Mackenzie,  J.,  To  Cut  Cells  in  Glass  Slips. 
Dibden,  W.  J.,  On  the  Bursting  Point  of  Starch  Cells  (Journal). 
Brown,  G.  D.,  Dry  Alounting  with  Gutta  Percha  Tissue. 
Elcock,  C,  On  Gum  for  Mounting  Foraminifera. 
Coombs,  C.  P.,  On  the  Exhibition  of  Magnified  Objects  (Journal). 
Teasdale,  W.,  Glass-Ruling. 

Smith,  J.,  On  Making  and  Mounting  Rock  Sections  (Journal). 
Hunter,  E.,  A  Medium  for  Mounting  Animal-Tissues. 
Horsley,  W.  H.,  On  Mermis. 
Lovett,  E.,  A  Day's  Shore  Hunting  among  the  Low-Tide  Pools  of 

Jersey  (Journal). 


XiviUQ  Bacilli  in  tbe  Celb  of  IDallieneria. 

By  Dr.  T.  S.  Ralph,  Victoria. 


I 


HAVE  demonstrated  the  presence  of  these  organisms  at  the 

Royal  Society  of  Victoria,  at  the  Microscopical  Society,  and 

also  at  the  Microscopical  Section  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  Syd- 

c 


18  LIVING  BACILLI  IN  THE   CELLS   OF  VALLISNERIA. 

ney.  There  is  a  little  difficulty  attending  the  demonstration,  but  if  the 
following  directions  are  followed  and  carried  out  with  other  water- 
plants,  I  believe  these  objects  will  be  seen  : — A  thin  section  of 
the  cuticle  of  the  leaf  of  Vallisneria  should  be  sliced  off,  so  as  to 
increase  the  light  passing  through  the  cells.  The  specimen  must 
be  placed  on  a  slide,  with  the  cuticular  surface  next  the  cover, 
and  then  the  slide  should  be  placed  on  a  rest,  with  the  cover 
downwards  or  towards  the  table,  and  remain  there  for  five  minutes 
at  least,  in  order  to  allow  these  organisms  to  fall  on  to  the  cuticu- 
lar walls  of  the  cells,  and  then  examined  under  a  quarter-inch 
object-glass  -  250  diameters.  These  bodies  must  be  looked  for  in 
the  quadrate  cells,  and  will  be  seen  moving  about  the  chlorophyll 
grains,  even  when  cyclosis  may  be  going  on  ;  and  after  the  lapse 
of  some  minutes  they  will  gravitate  out  of  sight,  or  be  found 
heaped  together  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cell  (or  apparent  upper 

end). 

It  is  this  circumstance  which  has  prevented  any  recognition  of 
their  presence  in  this  plant.  These  organisms  measure  i — 5,000th 
of  an  inch  in  length,  possess  a  distinct  motion  of  their  own,  and 
increase  in  size  as  the  cells  lose  their  vitality.  I  have  obtained 
these  results  from  specimens  of  Vallisneria  grown  under  any  or 
all  conditions,  with  the  leaves  perfectly  healthy  and  green  ;  from 
the  narrow  variety,  resembling  the  European  form ;  and  from  our 
large  Australian  one,  with  leaves  from  five  to  six  feet  in  length  and 
one  inch  in  breadth  and  a  considerable  thickness  of  lamina,  so  that 
sections  can  be  cut  "  edge  on  "  to  the  leaf.  These  objects  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  seen  in  the  long,  deep-seated  cells,  which  exhibit 
cyclosis  so  beautifully  in  this  variety.  After  the  application  of 
carbolic  acid  with  heat  to  decolourise  the  specimen,  I  have  wit- 
nessed the  movement  of  these  Bacilli,  although  the  acid  had  dis- 
integrated and  disorganised  the  other  cell-contents.  So  much  for 
vitality  !  How  much  for  carbolic  acid  in  directly  killing  these 
vermin  ?  I  wish  the  stipules  of  Hydrocharis  could  be  examined 
with  a  view  to  determine  their  presence.  A?tac/iaris  has  yielded 
some. 


J o-.iri- p.l    o f    Ml cr- o s c opy.  Vol.  3.  PI.  ] 


F  w.  M,LLErT,  Ad  Nat  Del. 


Journal   of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3.  PI.  2. 


f  W.  M/Lifrr  Ad  a/at  0£l 


J 


Journal    of    Microscopy.  Vol  3,  PI.  3. 


/■   *;     Mi'LLcTT,    Ac  NAT  ,l£L. 


Joij rna  1    o f   Mi cr o s c op v .  Vr/i .  3  PI,  4. 


/^  ^  MlLLfTT,   AP  AWr  DEL 


[19] 


^be  jforaminifera  of  (Balwaij* 

By  F.  p.  Balkwill  and  R  W.  Millett,   F.R.M.S. 

Plates  i,  2,  3,  4. 


IN  the  summer  of  1879,  the  25th  of  the  seventh  month,  business 
engagements  took  F,  P.  Balkwill  to  Galway,  and  having  an  hour 

or  two  to  spare,  he  went  to  the  shore  and  scraped  up  about 
14  lbs.  of  fine  sand  from  as  many  different  places  as  possible  : 
around  the  base  of  rocks  and  large  stones  which  there  abound 
near  low  water ;  from  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  a  few  small  half- 
tide  pools ;  and  from  the  flats  of  white  sand  which  stretch  up  to 
high-water  mark,  and  are  so  hard  as  scarcely  to  record  a  footprint 
or  show  a  ripple-mark  on  their  fine  surface.  He  used  an  iron 
spoon,  which  was  procured  for  the  purpose,  and  in  scraping  care- 
fully took  the  surface-sand,  especially  following  the  wave-lines 
near  high-water  mark  to  secure  the  Foraminifera  which  had  been 
floated  and  left  there  by  the  receding  tide,  and  those  lines  of 
drainage,  where  the  Foraminifera  are  similarly  deposited  by  water 
flowing  down  the  shore  in  small  streamlets. 

On  examining  this  sand  after  his  return  to  Dublin,  he  found 
that  it  was  rich  in  the  smaller  forms  of  Foraminifera,  and  that  in 
some  respects  it  corresponded  more  with  that  he  had  previously 
examined  from  Lough  Foyle,  and  also  the  adjacent  boulder-clay 
of  Limavady  junction,  than  that  with  which  he  was  more  familiar 
from  the  Dubhn  shores. 

He  therefore  resolved  to  obtain  a  larger  suppFy,  and  from  a 
more  extensive  shore-surface  when  next  an  opportunity  might 
occur.  Within  a  day  or  two  of  the  same  time  next  year,  business 
again  called  him  to  Galway,  and  after  collecting  as  before,  the  next 
day  he  took  a  tram-car  to  Salthill,  a  suburb  on  the  Bay,  about  two 
miles  west  of  "the  city  of  the  Tribes." 

Skirting  the  coast  by  the  road,  which  is  elevated  above  the 
beach,  he  proceeded  westward  until  it  diverged  to  the  right,  and  by 
a  pathway  round  a  wall  emerged  on  to  long  flats  of  green  sward, 


20  THE  FORAMINIFERA 

characterised  by  the  dwarfed  growths  of  erodmms  and  other  sea- 
loving  plants  in  exposed  places ;  beyond  these  flats  was  a  penin- 
sula or  miniature  promontory,  surrounded  by  a  far-spreading  debris 
of  disintegrated  rock  which  the  sea,  washing  it  on  both  sides,  had 
detached  from  its  low  cliffs,  and  at  a  radius  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
had  deposited  in  a  circle  from  its  point.  Descending  to  a  stream 
on  the  right  or  north  side  of  the  isthmus,  he  collected  a  little  from 
the  bay  on  that  side,  and  following  the  peninsula,  where  the  afore- 
said stream,  becoming  shallow,  poured  over  the  sand,  he  got  Sertu- 
larias  and  seaweeds,  and  added  these  to  his  store,  thinking  some 
Foraminifera  might  be  parasitic  or  adhering  to  them. 

He  examined  the  boulders  and  rocks  around  the  peninsula,  but 
the  stones  were  too  coarse,  or  the  exposure  to  the  breakers  too 
great,  for  much  fine  sand  to  lodge  among  them,  so  that  but  little 
was  added  to  the  canvas-bag  in  a  mile  or  more  of  very  uneven 
walking. 

Scrapings,  however,  were  taken  from  every  promising  spot,  of 
which  there  were  several  nearer  Salthill.  The  shore  is  here 
indented  by  numerous  little  coves,  separated  by  rocky  or  stony 
spurs,  which  cut  up  the  margin  of  the  shore  from  the  peninsula  to 
Salthill. 

These  inlets  afford  shelter  for  the  accumulation  of  fine  sand. 
On  one  of  them  was  a  mass  of  growing  vegetation,  from  the  tangled 
roots  of  which  also  sand  was  taken.  He  could  not  determine 
the  name  of  the  plant :  it  was  growing  in  the  sand,  where  it  is 
covered  by  every  tide.  On  approaching  Salthill,  the  inlets 
were  rich  in  floated  Foraminifera  about  high-water  mark,  so  that 
when  he  arrived  there  his  bags  were  heavy  with  wet  sand. 

What  was  in  that  load,  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  unfold 
so  far  as  Foraminifera  are  concerned.  And  now  arises  the  ques- 
tion, "What  are  Foraminifera  ?"  Foraminifera  are  "  Reticularian 
Rhizopoda,"  having  shells  or  tests.  They  are,  in  fact,  minute 
masses  of  protoplasm,  which  secrete  or  excrete  a  stony  cell-wall, 
which  is  usually  either  perforated  with  minute  holes — foramina,  or 
having  one  or  more  larger  apertures — through  which  the  pro- 
toplasm, in  long,  filamentous  threads,  called  pseudopodia,  often 
many  times  the  length  of  the  shell,  protrudes  itself.  These 
pseudopodia  inosculate  by  uniting  whenever  they  meet  or  cross 


OF  GAL  WAY.  21 

each  other,  and  thus  form  a  Hving  network,  along  the  various  lines 
of  which  the  granular  matter  of  the  protoplasm  flows  freely. 
This  circulation  differs  from  that  in  the  hair  of  a  sting-nettle, 
where  it  is  confined  by  the  lining  membrane  of  the  cell-wall,  or 
the  fovilla  in  the  pollen  tube,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  confined  by  a 
membrane,  but  circulates  on  the  outside  of  a  viscous  network  in 
the  medium  of  salt  or  brackish  water. 

When  any  prey,  such  as  a  minute  diatom,  touches  this  net,  it 
adheres,  more  protoplasm  flows  over  and  embeds  it ;  the  nutriment 
is  absorbed  and  the  refuse  rejected.  Thus  nourishment  goes  on 
outside  the  shell. 

Except  in  the  one- celled  Foraminifera,  as  the  animal  grows  it 
adds  fresh  chambers,  each  being  generally  larger  than  the  last,  the 
aperture  of  which  forms  its  centre  of  origination  as  its  own 
aperture  forms  its  completion.  Thus,  from  the  earliest  to  the  last 
segment,  one  opens  into  the  next,  whilst  the  creature  inhabits 
them  all  simultaneously.'*'  These  organisms  are  found  all  over  the 
ocean  bottom.  They  are  to  be  met  with  on  every  seashore,  whilst 
some  forms  are  more  peculiarly  plentiful  in  brackish  water. 

The  shells  are  of  three  principal  structures  : — The  Porcellan- 
ous,  or  opalescent,  are  white  by  reflected,  amber-coloured  by 
transmitted  light.  These  emit  their  pseudopodia  in  a  branching 
trunk  from  one  aperture,  but  have  no  foramina. 

The  Hyaline,  when  young,  are  like  glass  becoming  white  or 
semi-opaque  with  age.  These  are  foraminated,  emitting  pseudo- 
podia from  these  pores,  as  well  as  by  their  aperture,  and  sometimes 
investing  their  shell  in  sarcode,  which  emits  the  pseudopodia. 
These  two  groups  are  calcareous. 

The  third  kind  are  Arenaceous,  or  made  up  of  grains  of  sand 
cemented  together.  These  are  frequently  silicious — boiling  liquor 
potassce^  in  most  cases,  does  not  dissolve  the  cement  by  which  they 
are  formed.  These  are  often  tinged,  more  or  less,  brown  or 
orange  by  the  oxide  of  iron  probably,  as  intimately  associated 
with  the  protoplasm  of  these  minute  organisms  as  with  that  of  the 
higher  developments  of  the  entire  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 

Of  these  microscopic  shells  in  the  deep  oceans  and  shallower 

*  See  Williamson's  Foraminifera,  Ray  Society,  1858,  for  further  details,  and 
Carpenter's  Introduction  to  Foraminifera. 


22  THE  FORAMINIFERA 

seas  have  rocks  been  formed,  from  arctic  to  tropical  climes, 
even  from  the  Paloeozoic  age.  To  study  these  is  the  work  of  the 
geologist;  but  he  will  tell  us  that  many  species  which  we  are 
familiar  with  in  the  British  waters  of  to-day  have  remained 
unchanged  since  the  era  of  the  formation  of  chalk. 

The  question  of  species  is  one  of  great  uncertainty.  Some 
forms,  such  as  those  alluded  to,  we  recognise  from  Mesozoic 
times,  in  which,  though  now  we  may  find  occasional  varieties,  the 
type  seems  constant  and  all  but  uniform — as  Lagma  Williainsoni. 
Others  are  so  protean  that  we  recognise  their  very  want  of  stabi- 
lity, in  form.  Yet  something  about  the  structure  makes  us 
unhesitatingly  pronounce  the  aberrant  group  but  one  species — as 
Truncatidina  lobatida.  Again,  we  have  a  genus,  whose  allied 
species  it  is  almost  hopeless  to  attempt  to  dogmatise  about,  so 
endlessly  do  they  change  and  run  into  each  other,  where  some  of 
the  so-called  species  are  definite  and  clear  enough — as  the  Poly- 
morphiim.  Whilst  our  knowledge  of  the  life  and  development  of 
the  living  animal  is  so  small,  we  have  to  put  up  with  a  more  or 
less  artificial  arrangement. 

Patient  observation  of  the  living  organisms  themselves  is 
required  to  throw  a  fuller  light  on  the  subject,  and  clear  up  some 
points  which  the  systematist  requires  as  data  to  enable  him 
correctly  to  interpret  some  problems  connected  with  the  genealogy 
of  these  heirlooms  of  time. 

In  taking  a  general  review  of  the  Foraminifera  of  the  gather- 
ings on  this  part  of  the  coast,  one  is  struck  by  a  few  leading 
differences  as  compared  with  that  from  many  localities  in  Great 
Britain.  Amongst  these  may  be  noticed  the  absence  of  Bilocidina 
i'ingens^  the  moderate  frequency  of  Miliolina  fiisca  and  Anwiodis- 
cus  gordialis,  and  the  occurrence  of  a  few  fine  specimens  of 
Ammodisciis  Sho7ieaiia. 

The  flattened  forms  of  LagencE  are  remarkably  abundant, 
giving  rise,  as  might  be  expected,  to  varieties,  and  including  some 
of  the  rarer  forms,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Lagena  pul- 
chella^  L.  faba,  L.  bicarinata,  L.  fiinbriata^  and  L.  dathrata^  the 
last  two  not  having  been  before  recorded  as  British  species,  and  a 
variety  between  Z.  dathrata  and  L.  castrensis. 

Lingtdina  carinata  is   also    remarkable.      The  NodosarincE^ 


OF  GALWAY.  23 

Dentalince,  and  Cristellarice  are  but  poorly  represented.  Among 
the  Polymorphince.  we  have  the  rare  Polymorphijia  myristiformis, 
P.  complanata^  a  species  new  to  Great  Britain,  and  an  example  of 
P.  compressa^  with  a  short  Entosolenian  tube.  Globigerifia  biil- 
loides  occurs  plentifully,  and  is  accompanied  by  the  rarer  G.  inflata. 

Among  the  Textidarice  and  BolivincE^  Textularia  difforfiiis  is 
remarkably  frequent,  Bolhmia  IcBvigata  and  B.  dilatata  being  also 
more  common  than  usual  on  the  east  coast  of  Ireland  j  on  the 
other  hand,  the  rarity  of  Verneuilina  polystropha  is  equally  striking. 

The  Buliminas,  including  Virgulina  Schreibersii^  are  well  repre- 
sented, and  the  material  is  especially  rich  in  its  Cassidulmce  and 
DiscorbincE^  of  the  latter,  the  frequency  of  the  beautiful  Disco7-bma 
Parisiensis  and  of  D.  Wrightii  is  remarkable.  The  latter  often 
occurs  double  and  sometimes  treble,  the  faces  of  two  or  more  spe- 
cimens being  appHed  together,  suggesting  a  process  of  gemmation 
or  embryonic  adhesion  (as  also  the  double  and  probably  trigonal 
Lagenas).  D.  orbicularis — first  noticed  as  British  by  Balkwill  and 
Wright,  in  their  Dublin  shore-gatherings — occurs  seldom  in  the 
typical  form,  but  its  wild-growing  variety  is  extremely  common. 

Operculina  ammonoides^  of  which  we  have  a  few  specimens,  is 
not  often  met  with. 

These  general  remarks  must  close  by  the  notice  of  a  Ramidina^ 
new  to  Britain,  of  which  the  species  is  as  yet  undecided. 


POECELLANOUS  GROUP. 


CoRNUSPiRA  iNVOLVENs. — This  consists  of  a  fine  tube,  spring- 
ing from  a  central  chamber  or  umbo,  and  after  two  or  three  turns  in 
the  same  plane,  the  diameter  of  the  tube,  which  is  nearly  circular, 
increases  considerably.  This  species  is  often  found  in  half-tide 
pools. 

BiLOCULiNA  DEPRESSA. — A  broadly  oval,  flat  Biloculina,  with  a 
linear  aperture  extending  the  whole  breadth  of  the  somewhat  trun- 
cated anterior  end ;  this  and  a  broad,  flat  margin  are  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  two  surfaces.  As  in  the  MiliolincE^  the  cham- 
bers open  at  alternate  ends  of  the  shell.  Extremely  plentiful  in 
the  deeper  parts  of  the  Irish  Sea  \  it  is  rare  here. 


24  THE  FOBAMINIFERA 

MiLiOLiNA  TRiCARiNATA. — This  shell,  triangular  in  section, 
has  plane  sides  somewhat  resembling  a  plump  beech-nut  kernel. 
It  occurs  but  sparingly. 

MiLiOLiNA  AuBERiANA  is  triangular,  somewhat  like  the  last 
species,  but  one  of  the  sides  is  shorter  than  the  others,  of  which 
one  is  pierced  by  the  acute  edge  of  an  earlier  segment. 

MiLioLiNA  OBLONGA. — This  is  an  elongated  form,  closely 
allied  to  M.  seminulum^  and  is  frequent. 

MiLiOLiNA  SEMiNULUM. — One  of  our  commonest  species,  a 
highly-polished,  broadly  oval  form,  with  rounded  edges ;  frequent. 

MiLiOLiNA  SECANS. — Our  largest  British  MiUolina  is  very  flat 
and  thin,  with  sharp  edges,  broadly  oval  to  round.  It  is  fre- 
quently marked  by  transverse,  curved  wave-lines  of  growth ; 
common. 

MiLioLiNA  SUBROTUNDA. — In  some  gatherings,  the  predomi- 
nant form,  with  roundish  segment,  often  broader  than  long,  the 
inner  margin  of  every  segment  forms  an  adhering  rim  to  the  seg- 
ment it  clasps ;  the  surface  often  flattened,  wavy,  and  irregular ; 
common.  A  few  specimens  have  rib-like  markings  on  the  peri- 
pheral margin. 

MiLiOLiNA  BicoRNis  has  longitudinal  striae,  and  a  more  or  less 
flattened  mouth.  There  is  a  tendency  for  the  inner  segments  to 
be  heaped  up  in  the  middle  of  one  surface,  while  they  are 
scarcely  seen  on  the  other  and  flatter  side ;  rare. 

MiLiOLiNA  Brongniartii,  a  variety  of  M.  bicorfiis,  with  a 
rounder  and  protruded  aperture  ;  very  rare. 

MiLiOLiNA  FUSCA,  a  Small,  oblong,  brown,  arenaceous  Milio- 
lina ;  though  "  rare,"  yet,  by  comparison  with  its  rarity  elsewhere, 
it  is  frequent. 

MiLiOLiNA  SCLEROTICA. — This  rough,  angular  Miliolina  has  an 
appearance  approaching  to  arenaceous ;  there  is  a  similar  shell, 
with  round,  inflated  chambers;  may  be  but  a  variety  oi M.  seminu- 
liim ;  frequent.  We  should  say  neither  was  truly  arenaceous. 
Many  of  the  specimens  closely  resemble  the  Qidnqiieloculina  con- 
torta  of  D'Orbigny  in  form,  but  his  species,  as  described  by  him, 
is  smooth. 

Spiroloculina  planulata — a  few  small  specimens.  Here 
we  have  long,  narrow  chambers,  arranged  biserially,  in  one  plane, 
forming  a  broad  ellipse,  chambers  opening  alternately  at  each  end. 
The  specimens  are  hardly  developed  enough  to  decide  whether 
they  belong  to  the  group,  "■  Planulata"  or  '' Limbata^'  but  the 
limbate  sutures  not  being  apparent,  it  seems  safe  to  class  them 
with  the  former. 


OF  GALWAT.  25 


ARENACEOUS   FORMS. 


This  class  is  obsolete,  being  artificial;  the  term  is  only  used  for 
convenience.  We  have  already  noticed  Miliolina  fusca^  and 
shall  speak  of  Textularia  gramai  among  the  Textularin^. 

Gaudryina  filiformis  commences  with  a  triserial,  but  con- 
tinues very  soon  with  a  biserial  arrangement  of  chambers.  This 
distinguishes  it  from  Textularia  biformis,  which  commences  with  a 
spiral  turn,  otherwise  they  are  alike ;  rare. 

Verneuilina  polystropha — the  arenaceous  form  of  Btdi- 
mina — a  triserial  arrangement  of  sub-globose  orange  or  yellowish- 
brown  chambers.     Very  common  in  many  places  ;  rare. 

Haplophragmium  Canariense. — x\  lemon  or  orange-coloured 
delicate,  lustrous,  nonionine  shell,  bilaterally  symmetrical,  or 
nearly  so ;  the  last  chamber  overhanging  and  the  mouth  an  oval 
aperture  transversely  set ;  common. 

Haplophragmium  globigeriniforme. — Similar  in  colour  and 
texture  to  the  last  species,  but  smaller,  its  more  globose  segments 
built  up  somewhat  like  Globigerina  bulloidcs  ;  very  rare. 

Haplophragmium  glomeratum  (Brady). — Similar  to  the  last 
in  colour  and  texture,  but  somewhat  fusiform,  with  long  and 
narrow  chambers  ;  very  rare. 

Ammodiscus  gordialis. — An  arenaceous  tube  of  fine  texture, 
and  rich  orange  or  yellow  colour,  twisted  more  or  less  into  a  knot. 
It  is  comparatively  frequent,  being  a  rare  form. 

Ammodiscus  Shoneana,  similar  to  the  last  in  colour  and  tex- 
ture. The  tube  is  curled  upon  an  axis  into  a  lengthened  sugar- 
loaf,  spiral.  It  is  a  minute  form.  Two  or  three  specimens  were 
bent  near  the  middle ;  rare. 

Trochammina  squamata. — This  brown,  fiat  form  is  more  or 
less  acute  at  the  inferior  margin,  and  consists  of  two  or  three  turns 
of  a  depressed  spiral  of  chambers,  something  like  a  bun  with  thin 
edges  ;  rare. 

Trochammina  ochracea. — A  variety,  with  chambers  flush 
above  and  radiating  irregularly,  curved,  limbate  sutures  below;  rare. 
We  have  found  several  specimens  of  the  species  described  by 
Williamson  under  the  name  of  Rotalina  ochracea  ("  British  Fora- 
minifera,"  p.  55,  Figs.  112  and  113).  Parker  and  Jones,  in  their 
revision  of  Williamson's  nomenclature  in  "  Carpenter's  Introduc- 
tion," ascribed  the  species  to  the  genus  Discorbina^  but  it  is  minutely 


26  THE   FORAMINIFERA 

arenaceous,  and  clearly  a  Trochauimina^  closely  allied  to  T.  squa- 
mata.  Parker  and  Jones  figure  a  thick  specimen  in  their  "Forami- 
nifera  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  Arctic  Oceans,"  page  407,  PL  XV., 
Figs.  30,  31.  They  note  its  resemblance  to  some  of  the  Discor- 
bi?ice,  but  do  not  appear  to  have  identified  it  with  Williamson's 
species. 

Trochammina  inflata  is  a  brown,  polished  shell,  with  sub- 
globose,  inflated  chambers,  reminding  one  of  Rotalia  Beccarii.  It 
has  a  few  deep-coloured,  small  initial  chambers,  visible  on  the 
upper  surface ;  frequent. 

Trochammina  macrescens,  also  brown,  with  a  sunken,  shri- 
velled appearance  of  chambers  ;  very  rare. 

Trochammina  plicata. — Terquem,in  his  essay  on  the  "Recent 
Foraminifera  of  Dunkerque,"  second  fascicule,  page  72,  PL  8, 
Fig.  9,  describes  a  form  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  Patellina 
plicata.  We  have  found  a  few  specimens  which  are  apparently 
identical  with  his  species,  but  they  are  finely  arenaceous,  and  must 
be  assigned  to  the  genus  Ti'ochamnmia.  Terquem  does  not  men- 
tion that  his  examples  are  arenaceous,  but  it  must  be  understood 
that  he  attaches  little  importance  to  the  material  of  which  the 
shells  are  composed.  This  variety  of  T.  squamata  differs  from 
T.  ochracea  in  having  fewer  chambers  in  each  whorl  (six  being  the 
number  in  each  of  the  specimens  discovered ;  whilst  T.  ochracea 
has  nine  or  ten),  and  from  the  typical  T.  squamata  is  the  tortuous 
septal  wall,  and  the  subdivision  of  the  chambers. 


HYALINE  FOKMS. 


LAGENiE  are  the  simplest  hyaline,  unilocular  shells,  having  an 
external  or  internal  tube.  When  the  neck  is  produced  into  an 
external  tube,  it  is  said  to  be  "  ectosolenian  " ;  when,  by  invagina- 
tion, the  tube  is  internal,  it  is  called  "  entosolenian."  The  young 
shell  is  transparent,  like  glass,  becoming  frosted  by  age  from  the 
accumulation  of  shell-matter,  traversed  by  minute  tubes,  which 
give  an  opacity  to  certain  parts,  or  to  the  whole  of  the  surface. 
The  shell  does  not  increase  in  size,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  animal  is  full  grown  before  it  begins  to  secrete  the  shelly 
matter. 

Some  authors  are  inclined  to  include  the  whole  group  as  one 
species,  so  many  inosculating  forms  connect  all  the  so-called 
species. 


OF  GAL  WAY.  27 

On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  these  is  very  small,  compared 
to  the  vast  numbers  that  are  fairly  true  and  persistent  in  most  of 
the  well-recognised  types,  so  that,  considering  that  the  term  species 
itself  is  arbitrary,  it  is  open  to  question,  whether  forms  which  have 
kept  true  to  their  distinctive  features  through  geological  epochs 
are  not  as  well  entitled  to  the  designation  of  "  species  "  as  any 
apparently  better-marked  and  differentiated  groups  of  animals.  In 
this  case,  Lagena  would  rank  as  a  genus,  and  well-established 
forms  as  species. 


ECTOSOLENIAN  LAGENA. 


Lagena  sulcata. — Flask-shaped,  meridional  ribs,  some  of 
which  are  continued  down  the  neck,  straight  or  twisted  spirally 
around  it.  Unconnected  ribs  are  often  interposed  to  prevent 
crowding  at  the  poles ;  the  sulci  between  the  ribs  are  deep  and 
broad.  We  figure  a  curvilinear  variety,  as  Lagena  curviliiieata^  of 
which  the  typical  form  is  derived  from  Lagena  striata.  In  sulcata 
and  some  others  the  curve  of  the  body  sweeps  into  the  neck. 

Lagena  semistriata. — This  is  like  a  decanter  of  moulded 
glass,  with  a  few  short  moulded  ribs  protecting  the  broadest  part 
near  its  base.  This  gives  an  obcuneate  contour  to  the  shell, 
which  is  sometimes  sub-globose,  with  the  short  ribs  occurring 
alternately  nearer  or  further  from  the  base.  The  tube  and  lower 
half  of  the  shell  is  usually  smooth. 

Lagena  striata. — Shape  oval  or  oblong ;  the  ribs  are  much 
finer  and  more  closely  set  than  in  sulcata.,  and  the  shell  is  more 
delicate  in  outline  and  structure.  The  shore-form  is  usually  long 
and  narrow ;  the  length  about  four  times  its  breadth.  In  this 
variety  the  striae  are  continued  from  the  posterior  end,  and  are 
either  straight  or  twisted  on  the  short  tube.  In  from  40  to  70 
fathoms  of  water,  the  form  is  broadly  oval ;  length  about  twice  the 
breadth  or  less,  with  a  crown  of  a  double  circle  of  tubercles  at  the 
posterior  end,  the  striae  terminating  in  this  crown,  and  the  tube 
being  reticulated  by  the  crossing  of  longitudinal  by  transverse 
spiral  striae.  The  slightly  tapering  tube  is  nearly  the  length  of  the 
oval  of  the  shell.  In  both  varieties  the  tube  is  inserted  rather 
abruptly,  the  oval  of  the  body,  not  as  in  sulcata,  becoming  pyri- 
form  by  sloping  to  the  tube. 

Lagena  Lyellii  is  equally  delicately  formed.  The  shell  is 
broadly  ovate,  with  a  broad,  short,  tapering  neck,  having  a  castel- 


28  SOLORINA  SACCATA. 

lated  broad  rim.  This  neck  has  a  screw  spiral,  as  well  as  longitu- 
dinal striae.  The  posterior  end  has  a  very  short,  abrupt,  cylindri- 
cal tube,  and  the  beautiful  striae  which  connect  this  with  the  neck 
are  closely  set,  and  each  usually  continues  from  one  pole  to  the 
other.  We  cannot  concur  in  the  view  that  this  is  a  variety  of 
Lagena  sulcata,  but  append  the  remarks  of  H.  B.  Brady,  F.R.S., 
hereon  at  foot.* 

Lagena  clavata  is  smooth,  fusiform,  or  soda-water-bottle 
shaped,  with  a  long  neck  and  milled  rimf  at  aperture,  either 
obtuse  or  acute  at  posterior  extremity ;  frequent.  One  specimen 
was  found  finely  striated  from  end  to  end  (distinct  from  L.  gracilis). 

Lagena  gracillima,  a  fine,  tapering,  distomous  variety  of 
last,  lanceolate ;  both  ends  accuminate. 


Soloiina  Saccata* 

By  Arthur  J.  Doherty. 
Plate  5. 


THE  name  Solorina  represents  a  genus  of  Lichens  belonging 
to  the  IVth.  Natural  Order — Peltideace^ — of  Schoeren 
and  to  Leighton's  Illrd.  Family,  Lichenacei.  The 
genera  Solorina  and  Feltigera  closely  resemble  each  other  in  the 
method  of  evolving  the  apothecium,  which  is  at  first  covered  by 
several  layers  of  cells  similar  to  those  constituting  the  thallus  ; 
this  "  thalline  veil  "  gradually  dehisces,  and  ultimately  disappears. 
Solorina  saccata  is  found  growing  upon  the  earth  in  moist, 
shady  spots,  in  sub-Alpine  or  elevated  regions  especially  on  lime- 
stone rocks.  We  found  it  in  a  most  flourishing  condition  last 
May  at  Miller's  Dale,  Derbyshire,  at  which  place  we  are  unable  to 
ascertain  that  there  is  any  record  of  its  having  been  previously 
discovered.     The  thallus  is  of  a  leathery  or  paper-like  consistence, 

*  "  I  have  given  up  L.  Lydlil  as  a  quite  useless  name.  Wlien  the  specimens 
really  differ  from  L.  stilcata,  they  are  the  first  joints  of  Nodosaria  scalaris,  var. 
separans.  Norman  suggested  this  to  me  years  ago,  but  I  was  long  in  arriving  at 
any  conviction  about  it." 

t  Pointed  out  by  J.  S.  Wright,  F.G.S.,  Belfast. 


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SOLORINA   SACCATA.  29 

and  in  fresh  and  moist  specimens  is  of  a  green  colour,  which,  in 
the  herbarium,  changes  to  grey  or  greyish-white.  The  margin  is 
divided  by  crenatures  into  lobes ;  and  the  upper  surface  is  thinly 
covered  with  a  white,  granular  dust,  ''  albo-granulato-pruinose," 
Leighton.  The  under-surface  is  creamy  white,  and  is  furnished 
with  numerous  prehensile,  root-like  fibres,  termed  rhizinse  {^p'^la^  a 
root),  which  serve  simply  to  attach  the  thallus  to  its  support.  The 
apothecia  vary  in  colour,  from  light  to  dark  brown  ;  when  imma" 
ture,  they  are  small,  and  pressed  closely  to  the  upper  surface  of 
the  thallus,  over  which  they  are  irregularly  scattered.  They 
increase  in  dimensions  as  maturity  approaches,  at  the  same  time 
becoming  urceolate,  or  concave  and  sunken  ;  hence  the  term 
saccafa,  from  Latin  saccus,  a  bag  or  sack. 

If  a  thin,  vertical  section  be  taken  through  the  apothecium 
and  thallus,  and  examined  with  a  magnifying  power  of  three 
hundred  diameters,  it  will  be  found 

(i)  That  the  thallus  consists  of  three  distinct  layers,  (Plate  5) : 
(a)  the  cortical  layer,  formed  of  closely  aggregated  cellules,  the 
walls  of  which  are  more  or  less  distorted,  by  mutual  pressure,  from 
their  original  spherical  shape ;  {b)  the  stratum-gonidiale,  consisting 
of  groups  of  orbicular  granules,  filled  with  a  green-coloured  matter; 
{c)  the  medullary  layer,  formed  of  numerous  intertwining  filaments, 
which  branch  dichotomously,  and  in  appearance  closely  resemble 
the  mycelium  of  Fungi.  [Two  kinds  of  thallus  structure  occur, 
termed  respectively  Heteromerous  (erepog,  different ;  i^^pog,  a  part) 
and  Homoiomerous  {o\ioioq^  similar  ;  fi£jOoc,  a  part,  the  characteristic 
differences  of  which  are  generally  well  marked.)  In  the  former  class, 
of  which  Soloriiia  saccata  is  a  type,  the  gonidia  and  the  hyphas 
occupy  definite  and  distinct  areas  ;  in  the  latter,  these  two  kinds 
of  tissue  are  equally  blended  together  in  the  formation  of  the 
thallus.] 

(2)  The  spores,  which  are  contained  in  asci  (daKog,  a  wine-skin) 
or  hyaline  envelopes,  are  reddish-brown,  ellipsoid,  thick-walled, 
and  divided  across  their  centre  by  a  septum ;  and  their  epispore,  or 
outer  wall,  is  marked  by  many  granular  dots  or  points.  They 
vary  greatly  in  dimensions,  in  different  specimens ;  but  in  all  they 
appear  to  diminish  in  size  towards  the  circumference  of  the  apo- 
thecium.    According  to  Mudd,  they  measure  'ooS  inch  in  length, 


30  SOLORINA  SACCATA. 

and  '0035  inch  in  breadth.  Our  own  measurements,  taken  with 
great  care  from  a  large  number  of  specimens,  are  much  smaller, 
viz. — '002  inch  in  the  major  axis,  and  •0006th  inch  across  the 
septum.  The  asci  are  placed  in  the  midst  of,  and  are  protected 
by,  the  paraphyses  (literally,  that  which  is  produced  beside,  from 
Trapd,  beside ;  (pvcng,  a  production),  the  coloured  clavate  apices  of 
which  constitute  the  epithecium.  As  maturity  approaches,  the 
asci  ascend  towards  the  epithecium,  and  there,  bursting  at  their 
apices,  liberate  the  spores.  All  lichens  which  behave  in  this 
manner  are  termed  Gymnocai'pous  (yvfivbg,  naked,  and  Kap-n-og, 
fruit) ;  when  the  spores  reach  the  surface  through  an  opening  or 
chamber  formed  by  a  rupture  of  the  extremities  of  the  asci,  the 
lichen  is  denominated  Aiigiocarpoiis  (a  term  derived  probably 
from  ayyaov,  a  vessel,  and  Kap-Kog^  fruit).  After  liberation,  the 
spore  sends  out  numerous  filaments  or  tubes,  which,  branching 
and  intertwining,  form  the  hypothallus.  Upon  this  body  the 
medullary  layer  and  stratum-gonidiale  are  successively  deposited, 
after  serving  as  the  basis  of  which,  it  ultimately  disappears. 

The  apothecium  is  the  latest  development,  and  when  this  is 
perfectly  formed,  the  lichen  has  attained  the  highest  state  of  its 
organisation.  In  some  species  {e.g.^  Pet-tusaria  commimis)^  this  stage 
may  be  never  reached,  and  the  thallus  only  obtains  as  a  mere 
powdery  coating,  the  thickness  of  which  varies  according  to  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  is  produced.  The  lichen  is  then 
termed  ptilveriilent^  in  which  abnormal  or  abortive  condition  it 
may  continue  for  centuries,  increasing  by  bisection,  and  com- 
pletely veiling  its  base  of  support.  In  other  species,  the  gonidia 
penetrate  the  disc  of  the  apothecium,  which,  in  the  genus  Pertii- 
saria,  is  thus  rendered  abortive  by  being  converted  into  little 
heaps  or  clusters  of  powdery  bodies,  called  soredia. 

The  apothecia  of  Solorina  are  never  found  growing  parasiti- 
cally  upon  the  thalli  of  other  lichens  ;  though  parasitism  some- 
times occurs  between  other  species.  As  an  illustration,  we  might 
name  the  genus  Sphinctrina^  the  stalked  or  sessile  apothecia  of 
which  are  parasitic  upon  Pertusaria.  This  class  of  lichens  should, 
however,  be  carefully  distinguished  from  entirely  different  species, 
whose  thalli  grow  beneath  the  epidermal  layer  of  bark,  or  are 
fleeting  or  evanescent ;  such  as  some  Cladoiiice^  Calicice^  and 
Verrucari(Z. 


THYMOL  AS  A  POLARISCOPIC   OBJECT. 


31 


In  addition  to  the  three  kinds  of  tissue  already  referred  to  as 
constituting  the  thallus,  an  infra-cortical  layer  of  exactly  the  same 
structure  as  the  supra-cortical  layer,  may  be  distinguished  in 
immediate  contiguity  with  that  part  of  the  hyphal  tissue  which  is 
below  the  apothecium.  After  reaching  points  perpendicular  to 
the  ends  of  the  apothecium,  this  infra-cortical  layer  gradually 
passes  into  the  hyphal  tissue. 

To  elucidate  the  study  of  the  asci  and  paraphyses,  the  section 
may  be  immersed  for  about  half-a-minute  in  a  50%  solution  of 
hydrate  of  potash,  which  causes  the  parts  to  swell  and  sepa- 
rate. An  aqueous  solution  of  iodine  is  also  useful  for  tinging 
the  hymenium  blue,  and  for  testing  the  maturity  of  the  spores, 
which  will  remain  uncoloured  if  only  in  an  embryonic  state. 

The  specimen  from  which  our  illustration  is  taken  was  ob- 
tained by  imbedding  the  lichen  in  paraffine  wax,  and  slicing  with 
a  sharp  razor.  The  section  should  be  floated  (not  lifted)  from  the 
blade,  and  kept  in  lukewarm  water,  until  all  air  is  eliminated  from 
the  tissues,  when  it  may  be  mounted  in  glycerine  jelly. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  Y. 

a.  a. — The  Cortical  layer. 
6.  6. — The  Stratum-gonicliale. 
c.  c. — The  Medullary  layer. 

Drawn  by  Arthur  J.   Doherty. 


l^jj  I  L  I  B  R  A  R  Y 


^b^mol  aa  a  polariecopic  ©bjcct 

By  Dr.  T.  S.  Ralph,  Victoria. 


THYMOL,   said  to   be  a  product  of  the  Labitor,  is  a   most 
splendid  polariscopic  object.     In  the  first  place,  I  beg  to 
say  that  Thymol  is  really  a  purified  product  of  an  umbili- 
fer  of  India,  and  goes  into  the  market  as  ajoivaji.     If  a  very  small 
piece  of  Thymol,  about  the  size  of  a  mustard-seed  (or  perhaps  two). 


32  HALF-AN-HOUR 

is  placed  at  the  edge  of  a  covering-glass  on  a  slide  (not  under), 
and  then  made  to  melt,  it  will  run  under  it  in  a  very  fine  film  and 
crystallise  on  cooling.  But  before  this  takes  place,  it  should  be 
placed  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope,  with  the  polarising  appa- 
ratus ready,  so  as  to  watch  the  process  of  crystallisation.  I  con- 
sider the  effects  far  exceed  that  of  most  polariscopic  objects.  The 
same  specimen  carefully  re-melted  can  be  used  over  and  over 
again.  If  the  Thymol  is  allowed  to  crystallise  in  a  dense  form, 
some  fine  combinations  of  crystals  can  be  obtained  ;  but  I  greatly 
prefer  the  thin  plates  under  the  cover. 


Ibalf^an^'lbour  at  tbe  fiDicroacope, 

mitb  mv.  UnUcn  Mest,  jf^XS^  ff-1R-/in)*S,,  etc 


Plates  6,  7. 

On  Placing  Slides  into  the  Boxes.— In  other  societies,  on  a 
member  bringing  forward  a  specimen,  he  enters  into  a  description 
of  it,  with  more  or  less  detail : — how  it  was  obtained,  and  where ; 
how  prepared ;  draws  attention  to  the  peculiarities  of  structure 
presented ;  their  adaptations ;  the  observed  connections  with 
related  objects ;  notes  follow  on  anything  of  interest  and  mode  of 
life;  finally,  sketches  are  presented,  which  in  all  well-regulated 
societies  eventually  make  their  appearance  in  "  Proceedings  "  or 
"Transactions"  for  permanent  record  of  work  done.  I  have  sought 
to  show  how  the  thing  should  be  done.  The  more  nearly  our 
proceedings  approach  to  those  of  other  societies,  the  more  stable 
and  satisfactory  will  be  our  progress.  We  w?/^/  seek  to  have  a 
permanent  record  of  our  work,  and  by  each  putting  his  shoulder 
to  the  wheel  this  will  in  time  be  secured. 

[This  was  written  in  1875.  Mr.  Tuffen  West's  wish  for  a 
permanent  record  has  been  attained. — Editor.] 

Oak  Branch  (trans,  sec.).— Good  sUdes  may  be  made  by  taking 
the  piece  of  branch  fresh,  slicing  it  just  as  it  comes  from  the  tree, 
putting  it  then  and  there  into  glycerine,  and  after  a  time,_  when 
this  has  thoroughly  penetrated,  sealing  up.  For  vegetable  tissues, 
glycerine  has  no  equal.     Sections  which  I  have  had  lying  by  me 


Journal   of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3,  PI  8. 


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AT  THE  MICROSCOPE.  '66 

for  years,  on  being  turned  to  when  required  for  studying  some 
particular  subject,  have  dehghted  me  by  the  clearness  with  which 
the  structures  entering  into  their  composition  were  revealed.  The 
simple  explanation  was  that  a  slow  process  of  penetration,  and 
thereby  of  improvement,  had  been  all  the  while  taking  place.  It 
must  be  ever  borne  in  mind  that  the  object  of  an  investigator  is, 
and  always  must  be,  to  see  things  (as  nearly  as  possible)  in  their 
natural  condition.  By  the  simple  mode  given  above,  we  obtain 
this.  The  soft  cellular  tissue  of  the  liber  in  its  different  layers, 
the  liber-fibres,  the  starch,  if  present,  the  exact  degree  to  which 
organisation  has  taken  place  in  the  colloid  substance,  situate 
between  and  separating  the  bark  from  the  wood  (cambium) — all, 
all  are  preserved,  and  can  be  studied  at  any  future  period ;  for, 
Jiiunaiily  speakings  any  length  of  time.  The  advantage  of  this  can 
only  be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  tried  it.  'Tis  like  a  tho- 
roughly good  book,  which  you  read  through  and  through  and 
through  again,  and  each  time  you  come  to  it  something  fresh  and 
true  and  delightful  is  found.     Ponder  these  remarks. 

Testis  of  Mytilusedulis  (tr.  sec). — I  have  often  speculated  upon 
the  early  stages  of  the  Mussel,  especially  when  viewing  the  tiny, 
delicate,  semi-transparent,  hirsute  little  things  at  a  stage  which 
must  be  not  far  removed  from  their  birth,  and  wished  to  look  into 
it,  but  have  never  had  any  special  call  to,  and  so  the  desire  has 
had  to  remain  ungratified.  Mussels,  /  believe^  are  not  difficult  to 
keep  in  small  aquaria,  so  that  by  obtaining  some  when  spawning- 
time  was  on,  their  study  with  a  microscope  might  be  made  a 
delightful  source  of  mental  recreation. 

Young  Ticks  from  New  Forest  (PI.  VI.)  (found  at  Shirley 
Holms  in  the  New  Forest  by  a  young  lady  to  whom  they  were  offer- 
ing unwelcome  attachment. — A.  Nicholson). — Happy  Ticks,  to 
have  found  so  skilful  an  embalmer!  Happy  lady!  to  have  had  the 
courage  to  bring  them  so  cleverly  to  our  friend,  Mr.  Nicholson  ! 
When  beating  for  spiders  with  the  Rev.  O.  P.  Cambridge  near  Bland- 
ford,  in  Dorsetshire,  some  years  ago,  it  was  not  an  uncommon 
thing  for  young  Ticks  to  be  found  in  the  "  net,"  aii  inverted  um- 
brella, along  with  multitudes  of  other  "  small  game."  And  I  have 
now  and  then  found  them  about  my  person  after  a  stroll  "natu- 
ralising "  on  Frensham  Common.  In  the  young  state  they  run 
with  great  rapidity,  but  once  affixed  they  become  most  sluggish 
creatures.  Their  habits  are  most  peculiar.  You  will  remember  the 
old  tale  of  the  Glutton?  How  it  would  ascend  a  tree,  remain 
motionless  on  a  branch  till  its  prey  passed,  then  drop  on  its  victim's 
neck,  and  there  remain  till  it  loosed  its  hold  from  the  helplessness 
of  utter  repletion.     This,  though  said  now  to  be  (in  great  part  at 


34  HALF-AN-HOUR 

least)  mythical  as  regards  the  Glutton,  is  the  literal  fact  with  the 
Ticks. 

I  believe  they  cause  no  irritation  by  their  bite,  for  I  remem- 
ber  one    being    found    behind    the    ear    of  one    of   my    school- 
fellows, which,  from  its  size,  it  was  supposed  must  have  been  on 
him  two  or  three  weeks  at  least,  and  he  all  unconscious  till  it  was 
discovered  by  the    merest   accident.      These    specimens    appear 
closely   allied  to  Ixodes  riciniis,   the   Dog-Tick.     On    comparing 
them  again,  since  writing  the  above,  I  feel  more   in   doubt  about 
it.       The  members  will  have   the    power   of    judging   for   them- 
selves,  so   far  as  drawings  can  help  them,  if  they  will  compare 
Figures    i,  2,   on  Plate  VI.      It  must  be  remembered  that  this 
is  an  immature  specinien.     The    Dog-Tick  had    arrived   at    full 
maturity.     There  is   a  Tick  that  attacks  Deer.     This  I   do  not 
know,  but  should  like  much  to    see.     Perhaps    by  making  love 
to  some   of  the  keepers  at  Greenwich,   Richmond,   or   Windsor 
Park,  specimens  might  be  procured.     The  antenna-like  organs  are 
called  ^'' palpi'''' ;  the  lateral  portions  of  the  rostrum,  denticulate  at 
the  apex,  are  supposed  to  be  "  mandibles  "  ;  and  the  middle  part, 
with  its  numerous  recurved  barbs,  is  taken  for  a  ^'■labium'''     But 
these  determinations  are  confessedly  uncertain,  and  would  require 
much  careful  study  of  linking  forms,  as  also  of  development,  ere  the 
homologies   can   be  taken   as    satisfactorily    settled.     A   member 
seems  to  have  made  a  mistake  through  not  having  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  the  creature  in  life,  and  to  have  taken  for  a  claw 
what  is  really  a  beautiful  instrument  of  adhesion— an  "  arolia^^  or 
sucker  (see  Fig.  5).     Another  point  worthy  of  careful  note  is  the 
excavation  of  the  apparently  terminal  joint  of  the  limb  (but  which 
is  really  the  penultimate)  for  reception  of  the  claws.     This  is  very 
noticeable   in  Argas,  and  still  more   so  in  the  Scarlet  Earth-Mite, 
Trombidium    holosericeum.     It  has  been  remarked  that  the  Ticks 
are  blind.     How,  then,  do   they  find  their  prey?     Ah,  how  little 
do  we  know  of  these   wonderful    things  !     I    remember    Rymer 
Jones  quotes   the  beautiful  expression  of  an  Italian  philosopher, 
when  trying  to  explain  how  it  is  that  some  of  the  humbler  organ- 
isms come  towards  the  light,  though  without  visual  organs,  and  so 
carefully  avoid  knocking  against   each  other  in  the  mazy  dance, 
that  they  appear  palpa?^e  liicem.     Little   more   can  we   say  with 
regard  to  the  Ticks,  than  that  they  must  have  some  compensatory 
sense  highly  exalted — smell,  I  should  judge,  if  allowed  to  guess. 
The  mandibles  (?)  are  retractile,  as,  indeed,  is  the  entire  rostrum. 

One  at  least  of  these  specimens  appears  to  show  them  in  a  very 
beautiful  manner,  within  the  carapace^  which  to  myself  is  quite  new 
and  very  interesting.  Put  on  the  highest  powers  to  make  out  the 
beautifully  delicate  granulations  on  the  dorsal  shield,  to  which  we 
must  perforce  give  the  technical  name — pro-meso-Siwd  meta-  notum^ — 


AT  THE   MICROSCOPE.  35 

the  three  dorsal  portions  of  the  thorax  fused  into  one  for  support 
of  the  limbs.  There  is  no  corresponding  sternal  plate.  The 
delicate,  beautifully  undulating  lines  are  folds  of  the  skin,  whereby 
the  creature  is  enabled  to  expand  from  the  size  of  a  pin's  head  to 
that  of  a  Horse-bean  without  inconveniencing  itself.  Imagine  this 
nnnnrnnnni  ^  section  through  part  of  the  skin  of  the 
fOUU  UUUlJl/l/  back  ;  if  it  could  be  pulled  out,  how  greatly 
extended  a  surface  it  would  cover  !  or,  better  still,  take  half  a  sheet 
of  foolscap  paper,  and  fold  it  into  half-inch  widths  lengthwise  ; 
see  into  how  little  compass  it  will  go,  and  then  draw  it  out  ; 
does  it  not  excite  involuntary  astonishment  that  so  extended  a 
surface  could  be  got  into  so  small  a  compass  ? 

Glass  larva  (PI.  VIL,  Fig.  i). — A  popular  account  of  this 
by  E.  Ray  Lankester  will  be  found  in  the  Popular  Scie?ice  Revie^v 
for  Oct.,  1865,  p.  605,  and  Professor  Rymer  Jones  read  a  paper 
on  it  before  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society,  on  June  2nd,  1867, 
which  will  be  found  at  p.  99  of  the  Qiiartei'ly  Journal  of  Microsco- 
pical Science  for  October  of  that  year  (Trans.).  The  Professor's 
account  has  his  usual  charm  of  graphic  style.  "  There  are  many 
points,"  he  says,  "  of  high  physiological  importance  susceptible  of 
solution  by  a  careful  examination  of  this  insect  in  its  different 
stages  of  growth,  which  in  other  species  would  seem  hopelessly 
beyond  research,  owing  to  their  dark  hue  and  the  general  opacity 
of  their  integuments  ;  whereas  the  Glass  larva,  as  it  is  not  unfre- 
quently  called,  seems  eminently  constructed  for  the  purpose  of 
courting  our  observation,  inasmuch  as  it  might  almost  be  regarded 
as  purposely  intended  for  inspection — one  of  those  peepJioles  left  by 
Providence,  through  which  a  glimpse  may  be  obtained  of  the  elaborate 
machiiiery  of  creationy  (The  italicising  is  my  own.)  The  account 
has,  however,  a  failing  common  to  the  Professor's  writings,  of 
over-highly  wTOught,  sensational  descriptions ;  as,  in  speaking  of 
the  parts  of  the  mouth,  he  must  have  it  that  there  are  ''''formidable 
fangs,"  "  ^^rt-^/y  apparatus,"  "to  pass  the  victim  easily  along  the 
deadly  road,"  and  the  like.  Could  the  poor  insect  see  the  veteran 
Professor  sitting  down  to  demolish  his  chop,  methinks  it  might 
retort  with  more  reason  on  the  knife,  fork,  and  other  truly  formid- 
able weapons  he  used  in  the  process.  The  Professor's  attention 
was  specially  directed  to  the  endeavour  to  ascertain  how  the  meta- 
morphoses  took  place,  from  a  creature  breathing  at  the  tail,  to  one 
breathing  just  behind  the  head,  with,  however,  but  partial  success. 

The  flm-like  hairs  appended  in  pairs  to  each  segment  have 
been  described  by  Huxley  (after  Leydig)  as  "peculiar  sensory 
organs,  articulated  with  a  catcli  and  spring "  (see  the  article, 
"  Te<^umentary  Organs,''  in  Todd's  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology ").      The   larva   is   said   to  feed  upon    the  Water-flea, 


36  HALF-AN-HOUR 

Daphnia  pidex.  The  parts  of  the  mouth  are  rather  after  the  type 
of  a  Crustacean  than  of  a  Dipterous  Insect-larva,  and  some 
amusing  speculations  might  be  indulged  in  as  to  the  way  whereby, 
according  to  evolutionist  fancies,  the  Insect-larva's  mouth  had 
become  modified  towards  a  Crustacean  tyj^e  through  feeding  upon 
Crustacea ! 

There  are  two  pairs  of  curious  floats — one  pair  in  the  anterior 
third,  the  other  near  the  tail. 

Rymer  Jones  found  no  possible  way  of  mounting  this  object 
but  by  putting  it  up  in  a  cell  with  pure  wate?^  alive,  sealing  up  at 
once  with  a  margin  of  gold-size.  In  this  way,  they  had  been  pre- 
served by  him  for  twelve  months,  "  improving  for  some  time,"  as  he 
says,  "  by  keeping." 

Syritta  pipiens,  S' • — In  glorious  Westwood  we  read  (p.  559, 
Vol.  2)  : — "  The  larva  of  Syritta  {Xylota)  pipiens  has  been  found 
in  horse-dung  by  De  Geer  ;  it  is  thicker  in  front  than  behind,  with 
a  small  point  on  the  head,"  and  in  the  Generic  Synopsis  at  the 
end  of  the  book  (p.  136)  that  Meigen  gave  it  the  name  of  Xylota. 
There  is  but  one  species  in  this  genus.  It  was  called  by  Linnaeus 
Alusca  pipiens.  Horse-dung  is  easily  procured,  interesting  larvae 
occur  in  it,  examine  them  carefully  in  the  live-box  or  live-trough  in 
the  living  state  ;  if  you  have  only  one  or  two,  draw  and  describe 
them  carefully,  then  put  them  back  again  to  breed  out ;  watch 
them,  and  look  for  the  puparium  (pupa-like  condition  ;  it  is  not  a 
true  pupa,  but  the  skin  of  the  larva  becomes  hardened  and  horny), 
draw  and  describe  this  again  in  difterent  aspects,  and  put  care- 
fully back  as  before.  Then,  with  a  little  more  patient  watching, 
one  day  you'll  see  the  fly ;  examine,  describe,  draw,  and  if  a 
female,  try  to  get  her  to  lay  eggs,  and  you  have  the  life-history 
nearly  complete.  But  not  quite  ;  for  if  so  fortunate  as  to  get 
several,  you  may  have  the  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  union  of 
the  sexes  (a  very  important  point).  The  chapter  may  now  be 
closed.  You  will  for  some  time  have  had  a  most  interesting  and 
instructive  study  before  you,  and  will  be  able  to  furnish  a  valuable 
paper  for  the  "  Transactions  "  of  our  own  Society,  which  I  hope 
some  day  to  see  published. 

Claws  of  Insects. — In  Notonecta  glauca  we  have  a  typical 
illustration,  and  a  most  interesting  one,  of  the  truth  that  the  claws 
of  all  insects,  whatever  form  they  assume,  are  but  modifications  of 
hairs  ! I  to  adapt  them  to  special  purposes. 

Leg  of  Dytiscus. — Dytiscus  is  a  great  predaceous  Water-beetle  ; 
the  largest  our  country  produces.  To  enable  it  to  overcome  the 
struggles  of  its  powerful  partner  in  the  slippery  element,  the  males 
have  the  three  proximal  joints  of  the  anterior  tarsi  greatly  dilated 
and  furnished  with  sucking  discs.     The  present  specimen  shows 


Journal    of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3,  PI.  7 


^ 


J^V-.     >*, 


AT   THE   MICROSCOPE.  37 

the  under-surface  of  the  right  tarsus  and  tibia.  By  turning  it  over, 
the  three  joints,  in  which  so  unusual  an  enlargement  has  taken 
place,  may  be  well  seen.  A  few  thoughts  on  the  arrangement  of 
the  suckers  will  not  be  without  interest.  We  find,  then,  in  the 
first  place,  two  very  large  ones,  the  greatest  size  by  far  being 
with  the  inner  one.  On  the  joint  bearing  these  are  40  more — i.e., 
2x10x2:=  40;  the  second  joint  has  also  40,  2x10x2,  again ; 
the  third  joint  has  60 — i.e.,  2  x  10  x  3  =  60.  The  two  distal  tarsal 
joints  have  nothing  very  special  about  them  (as  we  say).  The 
limbs  of  the  second  pair  in  the  male  Dytiscus  are  also  furnished 
with  a  beautiful  apparatus  of  sucking  discs,  the  arrangement  of 
which,  however,  I  have  not  counted. 

Tong^ue  of  RMiigia  (PI.  VII.,  Fig.  3). — This  compares  in- 
structively with  that  of  Drone-fly,  to  be  found  in  most  cabinets. 
"The  proboscis  is  long,  membranous,  elbowed  near  the  base,  ter- 
minated by  two  large  labial  lobes  (under  lip),  and  enclosing  in  a 
channel  on  the  upper  surface  four  setse,  viz.  : — a  long,  horny, 
upper  lip,  hollow,  and  notched  at  the  tip  (labrum) ;  a  pair  of 
slender,  acute  maxillge,  and  a  slender,  acute  tongue ;  at  the  base  of 
the  maxillae  is  also  attached  a  pair  of  small,  inarticulate  palpi, 
thickened  at  the  tips."  Is  it  not  a  beautiful  description  ?  It 
would  not  be  possible  to  put  it  into  different  or  fewer  words  with- 
out loss  or  injury.  It  is  from  Westwood,  Vol.  II.,  p.  556.  Then 
we  read,  "  These  insects  are  either  of  a  moderate  or  large  size, 
and  generally  of  variegated  colours ;  they  are  very,  very  numer- 
ous ;  many  species  so  much  resemble  humble-bees,  wasps,  and 
other  Diptera,  that  they  are  constantly  mistaken  for  them  by 
the  inexperienced.  In  one  genus,  Vohicella,  this  similarity  to  the 
humble-bees  is  of  eminent  service  to  the  insects,  which  deposit 
their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  those  bees,  an  admirable  provision  of 
nature,  since,  as  Kirby  and  Spence  observe,  "  Did  these  intruders 
venture  them.selves  among  the  humble-bees  in  a  less  kindred  form, 
their  lives  would  probably  pay  the  forfeit  for  their  presumption." 
Truly,  the  ways  of  God  are  past  finding  out.  Yet  are  we  permit- 
ted to  see  a  fittle  of  them,  and  admire  that  we  may  love. 

My  attention  was  caught  in  crossing  Frensham  Common  the 
other  evening  by  what  looked  vastly  like  a  humble-bee,  yet  was 
there  somewhat  of  difference  in  the  flight,  the  mode  of  settling 
down,  and  slowly  hugging  the  heather-bloom.  I  felt  sure  it  must 
be  what  I  had  been  so  earnestly  desiring  to  obtain — a  Vohicella. 
I  succeeded  in  capturing  it,  and  bore  away  my  prize  with  great 
delight. 

There  are  but  five  species  in  the  genus,  so  any  individual  can 
easily  be  named.  Now,  look  you  !  these  flies  are  so  much  like 
humble-bees,  that  the  bees  themselves  appear  unable  to  see  the 


38  HALF-AN-HOUE, 

difference.  But  '■''Ex pede  Herciilefn!''^  which  we  may  paraphrase, 
"  By  their  feet  ye  may  know  them."  There  is  a  Dipterous  kind 
of  foot,  a  Neuropterous  type,  a  Lepidopterous  type,  a  Hymenop- 
terous  type,  a  Coleopterous  type,  and  so  on,  which  he  who  runs 
may  read,  after  going  to  school  long  enough,  and  being  sufficiently 
diligent  therein.  And  all  this  opens  out  new  and  ever-increasing 
sources  of  mental  enjoyment  and  enlightenment. 

The  Zebra  Hunting-Spider— Salticus  scenicus,  $. — What  a 
treat  it  was  to  us,  as  boys,  to  watch  these  fellows  on  the  steps 
leading  up  to  our  father's  warehouse,  in  dingy,  smoky,  sooty  Leeds ! 
So  clean,  and  nice,  and  pure  they  looked,  so  agile  and  graceful  in 
their  movements,  and  panther-hke  in  their  spring  !  Little  did  I 
then  dream  that  I  should  ever  come  to  live  near  White's  Selborne, 
to  love  the  things  he  loved,  to  watch  the  things  he  watched,  to 
examine  the  things  he  examined,  only  with  the  microscope  in 
addition,  to  open  wide  the  portals  of  knowledge,  which  to  him, 
without  that  aid,  were  but  as  a  sealed  book  !  To  claim  as  a 
friend  the  present  proprietor  of  what  was  then  the  quiet  vicarage ; 
to  see  the  letters  which  he  wrote  ;  to  handle  the  stick  wherewith 
he  walked,  and  on  which  he  leaned  at  times  to  muse  and  contem- 
plate the  lovely  scenes  before  him.  Great  indeed  is  the  power  of 
genius  !  Well  may  his  editor  say,  "  When  a  beam  of  hght  shines 
forth  in  darkness,  it  throws  its  brightest  rays  on  the  objects  nearest 
to  it,  while  objects  at  a  distance  are  scarcely  illuminated  at  all. 
But  the  light  of  genius  is  of  a  different  character,  for  it  often 
happens  that  he  whose  brilliant  intellect  throws  light  on  the  dark- 
ened minds  of  men  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  is  unknown 
to  those  immediately  surrounding  him,  and  is  even  rendered  the 
subject  of  contemptuous  pity  by  those  whose  mental  vision  is  no 
more  capable  of  receiving  the  light  of  his  intellect  than  their  cor- 
poreal vision  of  enduring  the  glory  of  the  meridian  sun." 

So  it  was  with  White.  He  was  widely  known  as  a  philosopher 
in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  but  he  was  so  known  only  to  the 
world  without.  His  own  village  could  not  understand  him,  and 
little  did  its  inhabitants  suppose  that  that  insignificant  little  Sel- 
borne should  become  a  world-known  name  by  means  of  him, 
whose  peaceful  life  was  spent  in  retirement,  and  whose  only  eulogy 
from  a  surviving  fellow-parishioner  was,  "  That  he  was  a  still, 
quiet  body,  and  there  wasn't  a  bit  of  harm  in  him  ;  there  wasn't, 
indeed."  (Routledge's  edition,  1854,  ed.  T.  G.  Wood). 

The  falces  are  so  different  in  the  male  from  the  female.  In 
the  former  the  palpi  are  longer  and  larger,  and  it  would  seem  that 
to  enable  it  to  take  its  prey  a  corresponding  lengthening  and 
strengthening  of  the  prehensile  portion  of  the  mouth-organs  was 
necessary.     'I'he  palpal  organs,  being  small  and  simple  in  Salticus^ 


■      AT   THE  MICROSCOPE.  39 

do  not  present  to  the  eye  such  a  striking  appearance  as  do  those 
of  Epeira  diadema,  figured  in  Science  Gossips  Vol.  187 1,  p.  86. 
The  structure  of  the  claws,  spinnerets,  and  scopulse  (brush-like 
appendages  to  the  feet,  whereby  they  are  enabled  to  run  rapidly 
over  smooth  bodies  in  quest  of  the  flies  on  which  they  feed)  may 
well  engage  our  attention. 

The  nature  of  the  hairs  clothing  their  limbs,  tactile  and  seg- 
mental, and  also  the  scales  (so  peculiar  and  interesting  in  their 
structure),  with  which  the  thorax  especially  is  covered  in  life,  is 
well  worthy  attention. 

I  would  commend  to  our  members  the  study  of  the  palpal 
organs.  If  they  can  be  examined  unrolled,  they  solve  to  my  mind 
the  difficulties  which  had  presented  themselves  as  very  serious  to 
the  reception  of  the  belief  that  the  palpi  of  male  spiders  really 
were  the  sexual  organs,  viz — their  apparently  small  size  ;  where  is 
the  prostate  gland  to  be  lodged  ?  where  the  vesicute  seminales  ? 
where  the  testes  ?  After  seeing  what  I  have  recently,  this  diffi- 
culty, presented  by  their  wonderfully  close  packing  together  in  the 
hollow  of  the  last  digital  joint,  was  removed.  There  is  evidently 
abundant  room.  The  enquiry,  however,  into  the  exact  anatomical 
conditions  is  a  difficult  one.  The  parts  are  so  minute,  require 
time  in  dissection  which  I  have  not  to  give  to  it,  and  higher 
powers  than  I  possess  (1,200  to  1,800  or  2,000  diameters),  whilst  I 
cannot  go  satisfactorily  beyond  500. 

In  a  paper  published  in  the  Alonthly  Microscopical  Journal^ 
Alfred  Saunders  described  and  figured  the  spermatozoa  of  certain 
of  the   Crustacea  and  AracJinida. 

John  Blackwood's  communication  to  the  14th  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  for  the  advancement  of  science,  held  at  York, 
in  Sept.,  1844,  was  published  in  the  volume  for  1845.  In  this,  at 
pp.  67 — 69,  are  detailed  experiments  which  set  the  question  at 
rest  for  ever,  and  prove  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt,  from 
direct  experiments  repeated  with  the  utmost  caution,  that  impreg- 
nation takes  place  solely  by  contact  of  the  palpi  with  the  female  geni- 
tal organs.  I  have  myself  repeatedly  seen  sufficient  to  satisfy  me 
of  the  accuracy  of  this,  so  thoroughly,  that  I  do  not  even  care  to 
repeat,  unless  I  could  extend  them. 

My  dear  lamented  friend,  Richard  Beck,  had  also  satisfied 
himself,  from  close  observations,  many  times  repeated,  that  it  was 
as  above  stated.  Another  valued  and  much-mourned  friend,  J. 
W.  Salter,  a  patient,  accurate,  acute  observer,  had  also,  I  found  in 
conversation,  come  into  possession  of  facts  to  the  same  purport, 
from  direct  observation.  They  rest  from  their  labours,  and  can 
speak  but  through  me.  Popular  authors  have  little  time  for 
direct  observation  ;  they  are,  and  must  be,  for  the  most  part, 
''^book-makers'^     They  receive  their  metal  from  others,  stamp  it 


40  HALF-AN-HOUR 

with  their  own  die,  and  then  pass  it  on.  They  have  their  favourite 
authors,  old  and  respectable,  with  whom  they  throw  in  their  lot — 
their  prejudices,  mayhap.  They  may  think  it  does  not  suit  them 
to  recognise  young  and  rising  men,  their  own  rivals,  and  so  Truth 
stands  still,  till  Time  has  done  its  work,  and  Truth  stands  out  at 
last,  clearly  revealed. 

Nomenclature.— As  to  the  name  of  a  certain  Diatom,  I  don't 
care  two  straws  about.  If,  as  is  admitted.  Smith  was  the  first  to 
describe  it  correctly,  his  designation  must,  by  the  laws  of  Priority 
of  Nomenclature,  stand.  I  don't  know  how  far  our  members  are 
acquainted  with  the  proceedings  which  took  place  to  settle  the 
laws  that  were  to  regulate  for  the  future  the  question  of  Priority 
of  Nomenclature.     They  are  briefly  as  follows  : — 

Some  years  ago  the  whole  subject  was  in  a  state  of  chaos. 
The  incessant  hair-splitting  of  some  observers,  the  description  of 
objects  from  imperfect  observation,  without  any  pains  taken  to 
trace  out  their  life-history ;  the  multiplication  of  books  describing 
the  same  thing  by  different  names,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
author,  made  it  imperative  that  steps  should  be  taken  to  put  a 
stop  to  such  a  serious  and  rapidly-growing  evil.  The  matter  was 
brought  before  the  "  High  Court  of  Parliament  for  Science,"  the 
British  Association.  Much  consideration  was  given  to  it,  and  a 
committee  of  men,  the  most  eminent  for  their  scientific  attain- 
ments, was  appointed,  which  drew  up  a  few  brief  and  simple  rules 
that  should  ever  after  regulate  the  subject.  If  an  author  described 
an  object  in  briefs  simple  terms,  whereby  it  could  be  recognised  by 
other  competent  observers,  the  name  bestowed  by  him  upon  it  must  be 
accepted.  A  thorough  overhauling  of  scientific  nomenclature  fol- 
lowed ;  old  authors  were  hauled  through,  and  if  on  mature  con- 
sideration it  was  agreed  that  they  had  complied  with  the  conditions 
stated,  their  names  took  precedence,  and  we  had  all  to  go  to 
school  again,  to  learn  a  lot  of  (to  us)  new  names  for  objects,  well 
and  familiarly  known  the  world  over  by  names  in  some  cases 
much  more  appropriate.  I  remember  the  name  of  Anguinaria 
anguina  as  a  case  in  point.  The  name  is  singularly  appropriate 
and  picturesque,  but  somebody,  most  likely  Ehis  or  Lamarck,  had 
called  it  long  before  by  another  name,  which,  upon  my  word,  I 
could  not  tell  without  looking  up,  and  by  that  name  it  now  goes, 
the  canon  having  been  sufficiently  complied  with.  I  remember 
well  remonstrating  with  Busk  about  it,  but  the  laws  are  as  the 
laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians — inexorable,  and  it  is  no  use  for 
anyone  to  attempt  to  alter  them,  however  much  we  might  w^ish  to. 
Waiving  altogether  the  question  of  the  superior  descriptiveness  of 
the  name,  Scoliopleura  tumida,  still  the  canons  are  laid  down,  and 
MUST  be  abided  by.     Having  received   personal  civilities  from 


AT  THE  MICROSCOPE.  41 

Prof.  Grunow,  I  should  perhaps  be  the  more  disposed  to  prefer 
that  the  better  name  should  stand,  but  it  cannot  be.  The  ques- 
tion win  not  be  without  interest  to  many  of  our  members,  and 
will  be  found  in  volumes  of  the  British  Association  Reports, 
which,  doubtless,  they  will  be  able  to  consult. 

TuFFEN  West. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE   YL 

Fig.  1. — Rostrum  of  Mr.  Nicholson's  Tick  from  New  Forest. 

,,  2. — Rostrum  of  "  Dog-Tick,"  Ixodes  Rkimis,  from  specimen  lent 
by  H.  E,  Freeman: — m.m.,  mandibles  (?) ;  L,  labium  (?). 
The  latter  specimen  has  been  greatly  injured,  evidently  by 
forcible  removal  from  the  animal  on  which  it  was  found. 

,,  3. — Antenna-like  "  Palp,"  from  the  Forest  specimen,  left  side, 
seen  on  its  under-surface. 

4. — The  same  part  from  the  Dog-Tick.  The  extreme  thickness  of 
the  bony  integument  will  be  noticed  ;  it  is  finely  laminated 
like  a  lobster's  claw.  There  are  also  channels  through  its 
thickness  for  enabling  nerves  to  communicate  with  the  sur- 
face ;  an  appearance  frequently  met  with  in  the  horny  integu- 
ments of  the  Insecta. 

5. — Foot  of  "  Tortoise  Tick,"  drawn  from  a  living  specimen. 

a. — A  beautiful  sucker,  called  an  '' arolia."  Li  mounted 
specimens,  the  lateral  halves  of  this  are  usually  placed  to- 
gether so  as,  on  superficial  inspection,  to  appear  like  a  claw. 

Drawn  by  TufFen  West. 


J3 


>J 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  VIL 

Fig.  1. — This   figure    represents  the   slide   of   Glass   Larva   (Corethra 
2)Iumicornis),  which  is  preserved  so  as  to  show  beautifully  its 
serpentine  appearance.      This  has  been  pointed  out  by  West- 
wood. 
€.,  Eye. 

o. ,  Ocellus.     So  far  as  I  know  or  remember,  it  is  the  only 
larva  having  just  such  an  arrangement  of  visual  organs,  viz. — 
Compound  eyes  and  ocelli, 
ifc.d. ,  a  mass  of  undigested  food. 

a.f.,  Anterior  pair  of  floats,  analogous  to  the  swim-bladders  of 
fish. 
2?./.,  Posterior  pair  of  floats.     The   floats  in  life  are   much 


42  SELECTED   NOTES   FROM 

more   conspicuous   than    in    the   mounted    specimen,   being 
densely  covered  -with  black  pigment. 

sh.  sh.  sh. ,  Sensory-  hairs. 

V,,  Tent,  which  opens  out  between  the  four  leaf -like  processes. 

The  numbers  indicate  the  difierent  segments. 

Fig.  2. — Fan-shaped  hairs,  more  enlarged. 

Drawn  by  Tuffen  West. 


3) 


3. — Tongue  of  Bhingia  Fly. 

Drawn  by  F.  B.  Kyngdon. 


Selected  IRotca  front  the  Society's 


Plate  8. 

Mite  from  Pheasant  (PI.  VIII.,  Fig.  i).— This,  although 
found  on  a  Pheasant,  is  not  a  true  bird-mite,  but  belongs  to  the 
third  division  of  Hermann's  Trombidiums^  and  is  characterised  by 
having  the  eyes  superior,  and  the  anterior  and  posterior  pairs  of 
legs  longer  than  the  odiers.  There  are  a  considerable  number  of 
these  mites  found  in  moss ;  they  are  more  or  less  red,  and  have 
two  bright  sealingwax-like  eyes  between  the  first  and  second  pair 
of  legs.  Koch  classes  them  under  the  name  of  Rhyiicolophus. 
Most  of  these  mites  are  very  beautiful  when  alive,  and  some  of 
them  are  rather  large. 

C.  F.  George. 


White  Mites  (PL  VIII.,  Fig.  4). — In  June,  1877,  I  noticed  a 
black  poplar  tree  suffering  from  the  ravages  of  insects.  In  many 
places  it  was  bored  by  the  larvae  of  the  Goat-moth  {Cossus  lig?ii- 
perdci).  On  removing  a  portion  of  the  bark,  which  was  wet  and 
loose,  I  found  it  covered  with  a  moving  mass  consisting  of  myriads 
of  very  peculiar  White  Mites.  When  I  examined  them  under  a 
microscope,  I  found  them  to  differ  from  any  mites  I  had  ever  seen 
before,  nor  could  I  find  a  notice  of  any  similar  mites  in  any  books 
to  which  I  was  able  to  refer.  The  females,  which  were  in  the 
greatest  abundance,  were  egg-shaped,  the  larger  end  being  in  front, 
and  the  sides,  towards  the  posterior,  somewhat  bent  in.  On 
slightly  compressing  them,  they  were  seen  to  contain  eggs ;  and  on 
crushing  one,  several  young  ones  escaped  from  the  almost  mature 


Journal  of   MicroscoDv,  Vol  3.P1  v8 


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THE   society's   NOTE-BOOKS.  43 

ova.  These  had  only  six  legs,  one  of  the  hinder  pair  being 
missing  (see  Fig.  VI).  The  abdomen  of  the  mature  female  was 
of  a  milk-white  colour,  and  the  legs  reddish-brown. 

The  males,  which,  compared  with  the  females,  were  few  in 
number,  were  very  peculiar  in  appearance.  Their  bodies  were 
smaller  and  flatter,  and  their  legs  longer  and  stouter  in  proportion 
than  those  of  the  females ;  the  posterior  pair  were  not  used  for 
walking,  but  stretched  out  backwards,  their  extreme  ends  bent 
inwards,  and,  as  far  as  I  could  make  out,  not  furnished  with  claws. 
Their  gait  was  extremely  awkward. 

I  visited  this  tree  again  in  the  middle  of  August,  when  I  found 
a  number  of  Hypopi  (see  Fig.  5)  with  the  White  Mites,  but 
whether  they  were  parasitic  on  them,  or  merely  residing  with 
them,  I  was  not  able  to  determine. 

C.  F.  George. 


It  would  be  interesting  to  know  what  are  the  lateral  oval 
markings  shown  in  the  figures  illustrating  the  above  paper.  The 
slide  now  exhibited  bearing  this  name  is  labelled  TyroglypJms 
rhyzoglyphus,  but  I  cannot  quite  reconcile  this  with  the  only 
notice  of  these  creatures  I  have  by  me,  viz.  : — Packard's  Guide  to 
the  Study  of  Insects,  where,  in  a  section  devoted  to  the  Arach- 
nida  on  p.  665,  6th  edit.,  he  says  : — "The  genus  TyroglypJms  is 
known  by  the  body  being  elongated  oval,  with  scissor-like  man- 
dibles, and  outstretched  four-jointed  feet,  with  a  long,  stalked 
sucking-disc  at  the  end." 

The  sucking-discs,  at  all  events,  I  cannot  make  out,  either  in 
the  slide  or  in  the  figures  in  Science  Gossips  above  referred  to. 

A.  Hammond. 


Larva  of  Corethra  (Glass  Larva).— I  have  just  looked  at  a 
specimen  which  I  put  up  in  water  two  years  ago  as  recommended 
by  T.  Rymer  Jones,  in  his  admirable  paper  in  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Microscopical  Science  [cir,,  1874],  and  find  it  looks 
nearly  as  fresh  as  when  first  put  up.  But  I  do  not  anticipate 
"  fixity  of  tenure  "  for  it ;  I  fancy  a  little  external  violence  would 
disintegrate  the  specimen.  A  good  description  of  this  object  will 
be  found  in  Lardner's  "  Museum  of  vScience  and  Art "  (chap.  3, 
pp.  90 — 94,  on  Microscopic  objects),  and  he  gives  reproductions 
of  Dr.  Goring's  drawings  of  the  larva  and  pupa ;  also  of  the 
image  and  eggs.  I  well  remember  the  pleasure  I  experienced  in 
first  taking  a  specimen  and  examining  it  with  the  very  poor  micro- 


44  SELECTED   NOTES  FROM 

scope  I  then  used.     I  have  since  found  it  in  abundance  in  some 
still  water  at  Wood  Green. 

H.  E.  Freeman. 


It  is  almost  impossible  to  mount  this  beautiful  larva  in  such  a 
way  as  to  give  any  idea  of  its  appearance  when  alive.  In  its 
living  state,  it  is  one  of  the  most  curious  and  interesting  of  aquatic 
larvae,  and  is  so  transparent  that  were  it  not  from  its  dark-coloured 
glands  it  would  be  very  difficult  indeed  to  find.  Dr.  Carrington 
gives  a  full  account  of  it,  amply  illustrated  in  Science  Gossip,  Vol. 
4,  p.  78,  etc. 

Arthur  Cottam. 


This  object  should  have  been  mounted  in  glycerine. 

H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


I  have  been  fortunate  in  finding  the  beautiful  "  Skeleton 
larva,"  Coretiwa  plumicornis,  at  Wood  Green.  A  gentleman 
exhibited  at  the  Quekett,  in  1874,  a  specimen  of  this  larva 
mounted  in  the  act  of  changing  to  the  pupa.  Lardner  says  the 
larvae  are  very  scarce,  and  must  not  be  fed  in  captivity  if  it  is 
desired  to  keep  them  in  the  early  and  more  beautiful  stage  ;  but 
my  experience  does  not  confirm  this,  and  even  a  plentiful  supply 
of  Daphnia,  etc.,  did  not  appear  to  accelerate  the  transformation, 
which,  in  fact,  occurred  very  seldom  in  my  "aquarium" — i.e.,  a 
bottle  of  water.  I  kept  some  all  the  winter,  and  they  thrived  and 
grew  considerably.  The  plan  recommended  by  Rymer  Jones 
for  mounting — viz.,  plain  water  and  closing  with  gold-size, 
answers  admirably.  I  have  one  mounted  nearly  a  year,  which 
looks  almost  like  life.  I  think  the  larva  very  large  for  so  small  a 
gnat. 

H.  E.  Freeman. 


Dermaleichus  passimiis.— The  greatly  developed  third  pair  of 
legs,  and  the  rudimentary  condition  of  the  fourth  pair,  afford  an 
illustration  of  the  general  law,  that  excess  of  development  in  one 
portion  of  an  organism  is  accompanied  by  arrested  development 
in  the  neighbouring  parts. 

A.  Hammond. 


THE   society's   NOTE-BOOKS. 


Uropoda  vegetans  (PL  VIII.,  Fig.  3).— Some  years  ago,  while 
examining  a  small  species  of  Carabus,  I  found  one  covered 
with  a  curious  parasitic  mite,  attached  by  what  appeared  to  be  a 
chitinous  rope  to  the  beetle.  I  made  a  drawing  of  it,  as  also  of 
some  others,  which  I  found  free,  running  about  under  the  elytra. 
A  copy  of  these  drawings  I  annex.  I  did  not  at  the  time  know 
what  the  tailed  species  was,  but  was  afterwards  informed  that  it 
was  U7Vpoda  vegetans.  The  drawing  was  from  the  living  mite,  and 
does  not  show  those  details  which  are  revealed  by  the  mounting 
in  balsam.  Is  it  possible  that  the  free  species  were  the  immature 
forms  of  the  other  ?  Packard  says  that  the  Acarina,  when  first 
hatched,  are  worm-like  ;  then  there  is  an  oval  stage,  when  the 
young  mite  has  but  three  pairs  of  feet  (though  in  others  at  this 
stage  there  are  four  pairs),  and  after  another  moultmg  the  fourth 
pair  of  limbs  appear."  The  passage  in  brackets  would  leave  room 
for  such  a  supposition.  I  think  the  peduncle  is  solid  and  not 
tubular,  as  Mr.  Nicholson  suggests  ;  but  perhaps  he  may  be  right, 
as  he  says  he  has  compared  it  with  others.  I  cannot  imagine,  if 
this  be  a  part  and  parcel  of  the  animal,  what  portion  of  the  animal 
it  can  represent.  I  have  hitherto  regarded  it  as  a  secretion  some- 
what analogous  to  the  byssus-threads  of  a  mussel,  but  in  the  slide 
before  us,  it  presents  all  the  appearance  of  being  composed  of 
chitine,  the  same  as  the  rest  of  the  horny  structures  of  the  animal. 
\.i  it  be  a  portion  of  the  body,  how  is  the  attachment  effected  ? 
How  comes  it  that  this  creature  is  found  on  the  petal  of  a  gera- 
nium (as  stated  by  the  owner)  ?  This  would  appear  to  be  far 
from  its  usual  habitat. 

A.  Hammond. 


I  am  desirous  of  knowing  what  are  the  uses  of  the  tail  append- 
ages of  this  mite,  and  what  is  the  substance  at  the  end  of  each  ? 

From  a  careful  consideration  of  somewhat  similar  specimens  in 
my  possession,  in  various  stages  of  development,  I  have  little 
doubt  of  the  tail  appendages  being  tubes,  acting  in  the  double 
capacity  of  means  for  suspension,  and  of  passage  for  nutriment,  a 
perfectly-formed  aperture  being  visible  when  the  tail  is  gone.  My 
specimens  are  fixed  to  the  elytron  of  a  beetle. 

A.  Nicholson. 


The  slide  containing  this  object  also  contains  a  young  mite,  not 
fully  developed,  which  also  shows  a  peduncle. 

A.  Atkinson. 


I   think  Mr.  Nicholson  is  wrong  in  considering  the  tail-like 


46  SELECTED  NOTES  FKOM 

process  of  Uropoda  vegetans  to  be  tubular.  I  have  known  this 
creature  to  form  the  appendage  and  attach  it  to  a  glass  slip  ;  it  is, 
therefore,  undoubtedly,  a  secretion,  and  can  be  formed  by  the 
animal  at  will.  I  have  frequently  found  them  under  stones  with- 
out this  appendage.  In  Mr.  Hammond's  figures  the  upper  one  is 
a  Gamasits,  and  therefore  not  the  immature  form  of  Uropoda.  I 
have  met  with  several  forms  of  Uropoda,  but  do  not  know  whether 
all  of  them  form  the  appendage. 

I  look  upon  Hermann's  Notaspis  Cassidens  as  a  form  of  Uro- 
poda, and  although  Koch  describes  several  kinds  of  Notaspis  as 
if  they  belonged  to  the  Oribatidce,  yet  I  think  that  all  of  them 
belong  to  Uropoda.  I  have  found  several  of  his  species,  but 
think  I  have  seen  none  of  them,  except  U.  vegetans,  produce  the 
tail-like  process. 

C.  F.  George. 


Spiders. — Let  students  of  these  interesting  creatures  examine 
them  whilst  living ;  at  the  same  time,  refer  to  Van  der  Hoeven, 
Vol.  I,  p.  565,  and  Siebold  and  Stannin's  Invertebrata,  p.  309. 
They  will  then  learn  what  is  known  on  a  highly  interesting  subject, 
and  if  they  are  actual  workers  will  be  able  to  add  much  to  the 
stock  of  valuable  knovv'ledge. 

TuFFEN  West. 


Prof.  Owen's  Hunterian  Lectures,  p.  462,  says  : — "  The  most 
careful  observations,  repeated  by  the  most  attentive  and  expe- 
rienced entomologists,  have  led  to  the  conviction  that  the  ova  are 
fertilised  by  the  alternate  introduction  into  the  vulva  of  the  appen- 
dages of  the  two  palpi  of  the  male." — Fourth  edition,  1855. 

Rymer  Jones,  fourth  edition,  1871,  dedicated  to  Prof.  Owen, 
says,  p.  414: — "The  impregnation  of  the  ova  is  evidently 
effected  by  the  simple  juxtaposition  of  the  external  orifices  of 
the  two  sexes  ; "  giving  us  the  use  of  the  palpal  organs,  "  most 
probably  as  an   exciting  agent,  preparatory  to  intercourse." 

D.  Moore. 


Palpal  Organs  of  Spider. — I  cannot  refrain  from  saying  a  word 
or  two.  Duge's  very  reasonable  idea  that  these  organs  are  used 
by  the  male  for  collecting  together  and  keeping  his  spermatozoa 
ready  for  use,  receives  no  refutation  from  Mr.  Blackwall  (whose 
interesting  paper  I  have  read),  and,  I  think,  falls  in  with  oth.er 
observations,  as  to  the  absence  of  direct  communication  between 


THE  society's  XOTE-BOOKS.  47 

the  palpal  organs  and  the  vesiculae  seminales,  and  the  presence  of 
vesiculge  seminales,  in  the  part  usually  ascribed  to  them,  is,  I 
think,  beyond  doubt. 

D.  Moore. 


Cuttings  Glass-Circles.— I  cut  my  own  circles,  trough-covers, 
etc.,  and  find  no  difficulty  in  doing  so.  I  use  some  perforated 
wooden  slips  of  suitable  size,  procured  at  any  optician,  and  run 
the  writing-diamond  round  the  aperture.  Any  smooth  hole  will 
answer,  or  even  a  card  with  a  hole  punched  in  it  will  do,  but  soon 
wears  rough.  The  thin  glass  must  be  well  supported  ;  a  piece  of 
plate-glass  is  best  to  rest  it  on.  The  diamond  should  have  a 
turned  point,  and  not  a  mere  splinter.  Very  little  pressure  upon 
the  diamond  is  necessary ;  too  much  will  make  a  rough  scratch, 
when  the  glass  will  not  break  evenly.  It  is  well  to  leave  the  cir- 
cles a  day  or  two  before  breaking  them  out  of  the  glass ;  they 
come  out  much  better  than  if  just  cut. 

H.  E.  Freeman. 


Polariscope  objects,  with  few  exceptions,  are  merely  pretty 
things,  well  enough  calculated,  in  moderation,  to  relieve  the  solid 
bill  of  fare  at  a  soiree  or  conversazione,  but  nothing  whatever  is  to 
be  learnt  from  them  save  that  by  certain  arrangements  of  appara- 
tus belonging  to  our  microscopes,  some  things  become  decked  in 
gay  colours ;  that  is  literaUy  all. 

TuFFEN  West. 


EXPLANATION   OF  PLATE  YIIL 

Fig.  1. — RhyncJiolophus    plialangioides    (Tromhidinm     phalangioides, 

Herm.),    from    Hermann's   figure,    copied   from    "  Economic 
Entomology,"  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  Acarus phalangioides 
of  Degur,  which  occurs  under  the  bark  of  trees  in  the  forest 
of  the  Ardennes.     The  magnification  is  not  given. 
,,    2. — Gamasus  found  with 
3. — Uropoda  vegetans. 

Drawn  by  A.  Hammond. 
4.— Female  of  White  Mite,   x  72. 

5. — Hypopus,  found  with  the  White  Mites,  x  72. 
6.— Young  of  White  Mite,   x  72. 

Drawn  by  C.  F.  George,  and  copied  from  his  article  in 

"Science  Gossip,"  Yol.  14. 


3> 

n 


[48] 


®ur  annual  HDceting. 


THE  Tenth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Postal  Microscopical 
Society  was  held  in  the  Prince's  Salon,  at  the  Hoi  born 
Restaurant,  on  Thursday  evening,  the  nth  of  October. 

Mr.  A.  Hammond,  F.L.S.,  President,  was  in  the  chair,  sup- 
ported by  Dr.  C.  F.  George,  in  the  vice-chair.  The  names  of  the 
ladies,  members,  and  friends  who  were  present  were  as  follows  ; 
the  visitors'  names  are  distinguished  by  an  asterisk: — Miss  Allen,* 
Mr.  S.  R.  Barrett,  Mr.  G.  H.  Baxter,  Mr.  E.  Bostock,  Mr.  Geo. 
D.  Brown,  Mr.  W.  H.  Burbidge,  Mr.  Richard  Carter/^  Mr.  F.  W. 
Cooper,  Mr.  F.  C.  Cox,  Mr.  Chas.  Clarke,'^  Mr.  Thos.  Curties, 
Mr.  George  Dannatt,  Mr.  M.  Farhall,  Mrs.  Farhall,-  Mr.  H.  E 
Freeman,--  Mr.  C.  F.  George,  Mr.  Harry  George,*  Mr.  F.  George,* 
Mr.  J.  W.  Goodinge,  Mr.  N.  Gregory,*  Mr.  Arthur  Hammond, 
Mrs.  Hammond,*  Mr.  Romyn  Hitchcock,*  Mr.  George  Looseley, 
Mr.  F.  Martin,  Mr.  J.  Martin,*  Mr.  E.  Maynard,*  Mr.  J.  W. 
Measures,  Miss  A.  B.  Newman,*  Dr.  H.  F.  Parsons,  Mrs.  Par- 
sons,* Mr.  R.  Peach,  Mr.  F.  E,  Robinson,  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs, 
Mr.  Washington  Teasdale,  Mr.  Alfred  Allen  (Hon.  Sec). 

At  the  close  of  the  dinner,  the  President  proposed  "  The 
Queen,"  which  was  heartily  received. 

The  business  of  the  Annual  Meeting  was  then  proceeded  with. 
The  Report  and  Balance  Sheet,  copies  of  which  had  been  sent  to 
the  members  and  distributed  to  those  present,  being  taken  as 
read,  were  adopted.     The  following  is  a  copy : — 

"  The  Committee  have  much  pleasure  in  laying  before  the 
Members  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society  their  Tenth 
Annual  Report,  and  in  doing  so  beg  again  to  congratulate 
them  on  its  sustained  and  increasing  success. 

During  the  past  year  the  Sub-Committee  have  held  six 
meetings  ;  others  would  most  probably  have  been  held,  but  for 
the  illness  of  your  Hon.  Secretary,  which  not  only  confined  him 
to  the  house,  but  prevented  his  taking  any  active  part,  except  so 
far  as  was  absolutely  necessary,  in  the  work  of  the  Society. 

Shortly  after  the  Annual  Meeting  all  slides  in  circulation  were 
exchanged,  and  an  alteration  was  made,  in  compliance  with  the 
suggestions  from  some  of  the  Members,  in  the  size  of  the  MS. 
Note-Books  :  this  alteration  has  proved  in  working  to  be  very 
inconvenient,  and  it  is  now  proposed  to  adopt  a  more  convenient 
size  of  book  immediately  after  the  present  Meeting. 


OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING.  49 

At  the  date  of  the  last  Committee  Meeting  (Sept.  3rd),  the 
total  number  of  enrolled  Members  was  170;  during  the  past 
year  29  new  Members  have  been  added,  while  a  few  have  found 
it  necessary,  from  various  circumstances,  to  resign. 

With  feelings  of  very  sincere  sorrow,  your  Committee  have  to 
record  the  death  of  Col.  Basevi,  of  Prestbury,  near  Cheltenham. 
The  late  Col.  Basevi  had  been  a  member  for  many  years,  during 
the  whole  of  which  he  took  a  warm  and  untiring  interest  in  the 
welfare  and  success  of  the  Society.  The  slides  circulated  by  him 
were  always  of  a  peculiarly  interesting  character,  his  notes  were 
always  carefully  and  thoughtfully  written,  and  his  drawings  and 
rough  sketches  were  effective,  and  thoroughly  explanatory  of  the 
subjects  treated.  An  unfinished  drawing  appears  in  one  of  the 
note-books,  testifying  how  great  an  interest  he  retained  in  the 
Society  to  the  last. 

Another  member.  Dr.  J.  Kendall  Burt,  of  Kendal,  had  tempo- 
rarily resigned  in  consequence  of  a  severe  illness ;  he  was  recom- 
mended to  take  a  sea-voyage,  but  we  regret  to  learn  he  died  on  his 
voyage  out. 

Your  Committee  are  again,  with  much  reluctance,  compelled 
to  enforce  on  Members  the  need  of  greater  punctuality  in  the 
despatch  of  P. M.S.  boxes,  and  that  this  may  be  more  effectually 
secured,  they  request  each  Member  to  keep  in  mind  the  name  of 
the  one  preceding  him  on  the  list ;  and  in  the  event  of  three 
weeks  passing  without  the  receipt  of  a  box,  the  preceding 
Member  should  be  written  to,  who,  if  the  cause  of  delay  does  not 
rest  with  him,  must  then  write  to  his  predecessor,  and  so  on  ; 
the  Member  so  written  to,  should,  after  the  lapse  of  fair  and 
reasonable  time,  acquaint  the  Secretary  with  the  delay,  who  will 
at  once  take  all  necessary  steps  to  trace  the  offender,  and  the 
whole  of  the  correspondence  will  be  laid  before  the  Committee  at 
their  next  meeting. 

Your  Committee  take  pleasure  in  congratulating  many  of  the 
Members  on  the  superior  manner  in  which  they  have  employed 
both  pen  and  pencil  in  the  way  of  descriptive  illustration  of  their 
slides  during  the  past  session,  and  trust  that  they  will  take 
advantage  of  the  increased  facihties  which  will  be  afforded  to 
them  in  the  future,  to  make  their  Notes  and  illustrations  still 
more  worthy  a  place  in  Our  Own  Journal. 

It  is  with  no  small  degree  of  gratification  that  your  Committee 
are  enabled  to  announce  that  the  Journal  of  the  P.M.S.,  which 
has  just  completed  its  second  volume,  is  in  a  fair  way  to  achieve 
the  success  so  anxiously  looked  forward  to  by  its  promoters.  As 
is  the  case  with  every  new  enterprise,  a  certain  amount  of 
difficulty  has  to  be  met  and  overcome,    before  the    looked-for 

E 


50 


OUR  ANNUAL   MEETING. 


prosperity  can  be  attained.  But  that  its  permanent  success  may 
be  speedily  and  effectually  secured,  its  Editor  very  confidently 
appeals  to  all  the  Members  of  the  Society,  and  to  all  Microscopists 
and  friends  of  Science  generally,  throughout  the  kingdom  :  first, 
to  promote  its  usefulness  by  the  contribution  of  good  and  suitable 
articles  ;  and  second,  to  increase  its  sale  by  inducing  as  many  as 
possible  of  their  personal  friends  to  become  subscribers. 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  Balance-Sheet,  which  has  been 
duly  audited  : — 

The  Postal  Microscopical  Society  in  account  with   Treasurer. 


To  Postages    . .            £36  14 

7 

By  Receipts    . . 

£56  18    6 

,,  Letters  surcharged 

0 

2 

11 

, ,    Balance     . . 

. .   13  16    9 

,j  Journey  to  London 

attending  Annual 

Meeting  . . 

2 

0 

0 

, ,  Two  Visitors 

0 

8 

0 

,,  Dinner-Cards 

0 

3 

6 

,,  Christmas-Box   to 

Postman  . . 

0 

2 

6 

,,  Printing  Reports,  etc 

.  7 

10 

0 

5,  Note-Books 

1 

10 

0 

,,  Envelopes. . 

0 

5 

0 

,,  Circulating  Journals 

0 

2 

0 

54 

18 

6 

,,  Bal.  brot.  forward 

15 

16 

9 

70  15    3 

Audited  this  14th  Sept.,   1883. 


70  15    3 
R.  H.  Moore. 


The  Secretary  called  attention  to  certain  alterations,  which, 
he  hoped,  would  add  very  considerably  to  the  more  efficient  work- 
ing and  the  greater  usefulness  and  permanent  success  of  the 
Society.  He  thought  that  as  the  Society  entered  on  its  Second 
Decade  to-night,  no  more  fitting  opportunity  would  be  found  for 
making  any  important  alteration  than  the  present. 

A  few  weeks  ago,  several  propositions  were  submitted  to  all 
the  members,  and  their  views  solicited.  The  list  of  proposed 
Rules  laid  before  the  members  this  evening  embodied,  as  far  as 
practicable,  all  the  various  suggestions  received  up  to  date,  and  were 
as  follows  : — 

1.  That  the  Society  be  divided  into — 

«,  Fellows ;    b^  Members ;    <r,   Honorary  Members ; 


OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING.  51 

who  shall  each  pay  an  annual  subscription  of  los.,  and  that  each 
will  be  entitled  to  receive  one  copy  of  the  Journal  as  published, 
and  may  purchase  any  further  number  at  5s.  per  year  for  every 
additional  copy  (except  the  price  of  the  Journal  should  be  altered, 
when  the  price  to  Members  for  additional  copies  will  be  three- 
fourths  the  retail  price,  plus  postage).  [This  in  no  way  alters  the 
present  subscription,  as  each  member,  with  the  exception  of  one 
or  two,  already  subscribes  for  the  Journal.] 

2.  That  Fellows  shall  be  elected  at  the  discretion  of  the  Com- 
mittee from  the  Members  at  large  (subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Members  at  the  Annual  Meeting) ;  the  qualification  for  Fellowship 
being  the  circulation  of  the  required  number  of  slides,  with  notes 
and  drawings  in  illustration  of  the  same.  Lists  of  new  Fellows  to 
be  prepared  by  the  Committee  prior  to  the  Annual  Meeting,  and 
laid  before  such  Meeting  for  its  approval. 

3.  The  Honorary  Members  are  those  who  pay  the  annual 
subscription,  but  prefer  not  to  see  the  boxes  or  to  circulate  sUdes. 
[We  have  several  such  now  in  the  Society,  all  of  whom  subscribe 
for  the  Journal.] 

4.  That  at  those  times  when  it  shall  be  considered  desirable  to 
renew  or  exchange  the  slides  (not  being  oftener  than  at  intervals 
of  twelve  months),  all  Fellows  and  Members  be  required  to  send 
to  the  Hon.  Sec.  six  good  slides  accompanied  by  notes,  and  when 
practicable  drawings  in  illustration  of  the  same.  Suitable  MS. 
books  and  drawing  paper  will  be  supplied  by  the  Hon.  Sec. 

These  slides  will  be  arranged  in  boxes,  and  all  slides  then  in 
circulation  will  be  returned  to  their  owners  with  the  notes  relating 

O 

to  them.  Each  Member  will  remove  his  own  slide  and  send  on  the 
box  and  book  to  the  next  name  on  the  list,  the  last  Member  to 
return  the  empty  box  and  MS.  book,  &c.,  to  the  Hon.  Sec.  [For 
the  efficient  working  of  the  Society,  5  slides  are  absolutely  required 
from  every  Member ;  if  therefore  6  slides  are  sent  each  box  will 
be  filled  by  two  Members.  By  this  arrangement  it  is  also  thought 
that  the  boxes  will  be  more  judiciously  filled  than  is  now  some- 
times the  case.] 

5.  That  all  Members  who  are  unable  or  unwilling  to  circulate 
any  slides  shall  pay  an  extra  subscription  of  5s.  yearly,  when  the 
Hon.  Sec.  will  buy  suitable  slides  and  insert  them  in  the  boxes. 
[It  is  certainly  unfair  to  those  who  circulate  the  full  number  of 
shdes  and  notes  that  others  should  do  nothing  to  advance  the 
interests  of  the  Society ;  and  we  think  that  few  Members  would 
value  their  slides  and  notes  at  so  low  a  figure  as  5s.  the  year. 


52  OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING. 

Owing  to  the  defalcations  of  some  Members,  others  have  been 
almost  compelled  to  circulate  many  more  slides. 

6.  All  Members  who  circulate  some,  but  a  fewer  number  than 
six  slides,  may  compound  for  the  deficiency  by  paying  is,  6d. 
each  for  the  remainder,  making  six  slides  in  all. 

7.  All  slides  purchased  as  suggested  in  Nos.  5  and  6  shall,  at 
the  expiration  of  their  circulation,  be  transferred  to  the  Reference 
Cabinet  of  the  Society. 

8.  That  Fellows  and  Members  may  Insure  all  their  slides  in 
circulation  by  paying  an  additional  insurance  fee  of  2s.  with  the 
annual  subscription,  when  in  case  of  breakage  the  Hon.  Sec.  will 
replace  to  the  best  of  his  ability  all  slides  belonging  to  such  Mem- 
ber as  may  be  broken  in  transit ;  but  the  value  of  no  broken  slide 
shall  be  assessed  at  more  than  5  s.  ;  and  all  slides  so  replaced  will 
be  marked  as  such  and  will  of  course  be  the  property  of  the 
original  owner  of  the  slide  destroyed. 

9.  Members  leaving  home  for  any  longer  period  than  two  days 
must  either  leave  instructions  for  the  box  to  be  at  once  dispatched 
to  the  next  name,  or  write  to  the  Member  preceding,  and  to  the 
Hon.  Sec. 

10.  Members  keeping  the  boxes  longer  than  four  days,  from 
whatever  cause,  must  pay  a  fine  of  twopence  per  day,  commencing 
at  the  5th  day.  [This  Rule  is  very  much  objected  to,  but  no  one 
suggests  an  amendment,  except  that  all  box-stoppers  shall  be  "ex- 
communicated." Who  will  suggest  a  remedy  without  resorting  to 
such  severe  measures  ?] 

11.  The  Vice-President  of  one  year  shall  become  President 
the  year  following,  and  that  Presidents  and  Vice-Presidents  be 
chosen  from  the  lists  of  Fellows  or  Honorary  Members. 

The  Secretary  said  he  had  received  many  letters  containing 
suggestions,  the  most  important  of  which  he  would  read  to  the 
meeting.  Several  letters  were  then  read,  which  are  too  lengthy 
for  publication.     The  following  is  a  summary  of  their  contents : — 

The  first  letter  was  from  their  young  invalided  friend,  Mr. 
Searle,  who  was  too  unwell  to  be  present  that  evening.  He 
approved  heartily  of  proposition  No.  4,  since  it  would  increase 
immeasurably  the  efficiency  of  the  Society,  giving  it,  in  fact,  a 
fresh  starting-point. 

The  Secretary  further  said  there  were  13  or  14  members  in  a 
certain  circuit  which  he  would  not  name.  The  majority  were 
hard-working,  valuable  members.  But  one  or  two  were  shock- 
ingly neghgent.     He  was  frequently  troubled  with  complaints  as 


OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING.  53 

to  delay  of  boxes,  and  had  to  write  many  letters  to  offenders  in 
that  respect.  On  one  occasion  four  boxes  arrived  together  at  the 
house  of  one  member,  and  since  then  none  at  all  had  come  to 
hand,  although  more  than  one  was  due.  On  this  subject  a  letter 
had  been  received  from  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Lett,  who  suggested  that 
all  "  box-stoppers  "  should  be  relegated  to  a  special  circuit  consist- 
ing of  themselves  alone,  and  marked  with  the  letter  "  Z." 

On  the  suggested  Rule  lo,  the  Rev.  C.  H.  Waddell  wrote. 
He  feared  that  the  proposition  would  not  work,  and  proposed  as 
an  amended  rule,  that  members  detaining  the  boxes  unreasonably 
so  as  to  cause  inconvenience  should  be  passed  over  in  the  circuit 
by  direction  of  the  Secretary,  on  information  of  their  repeated 
fault  being  communicated  to  him. 

Mr.  Alfred  Atkinson,  the  first  President  of  the  Society,  wrote 
from  Brigg,  and  said  he  thought  that  honorary  members  should 
not  have  a  vote  in  the  proceedings  and  working  of  the  Society. 

A  letter  was  also  received  that  evening,  addressed  to  the 
President,  from  Mr.  C.  N.  Peal,  of  Ealing,  expressing  complete 
disapproval  of  all  the  propositions. 

Many  other  letters  had  been  received,  but  as  their  views  were 
embodied,  as  far  as  practicable,  in  the  revised  copy  of  suggested 
rules,  it  would  be  quite  unnecessary  to  take  up  the  time  of  the 
meeting  in  reading  them. 

The  Secretary  observed  that  he  had  little  further  to  say,  except 
that,  as  he  had  already  stated,  he  had  received  a  great  many 
replies  to  the  circular  issued  by  the  Committee.  All  contained 
suggestions  which  he  considered  more  or  less  good,  and  he  had 
tried,  as  far  as  possible,  to  meet  the  suggestions  which  had  reached 
him  up  to  that  time. 

A  member,  whose  opinion  he  considered  was  worthy  of 
attention,  suggested  that  it  would  be  unwise  to  designate  members 
who  pay  a  subscription  "  honorary  members."  He  (the  Secretary) 
was  quite  willing  to  abandon  the  term  honorary,  but  thought  that 
some  of  the  best  working  members  might  with  justice  be  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  Fellows. 

With  respect  to  the  4th  suggestion,  which  related  to  the  regu- 
lar supply  of  boxes,  he  thought  every  member  present  had  felt 
more  or  less  the  inconvenience  of  receiving  back  their  slides 
without  the  notes,  after  going  through  every  circuit.  To  keep  up 
a  constant  circulation,  five  slides  were  required  from  every  mem- 
ber, but  a  great  many  members  did  not  put  in  five,  and  on  the 
next  circuit  some  good-natured  friend  would  put  one  in  to  fill  the 
box.  That  foreign  slide  would  probably  accumulate  a  great  many 
notes,  and  in  due  course  it  would  be  returned  to  the  sender,  but 
without  the  notes.     One  reason  why  our  valued  member,  Mr. 


54  OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING. 

Beaulah  resigned,  was  because  he  could  not  see  the  notes  on  the 
slides  which  he  had  circulated.  It  was  impossible  to  send  to  each 
member  all  the  foreign  boxes  into  which  they  had  put  slides,  and 
the  only  plan  he  could  conceive  of  was  to  return  such  slides  to  the 
owners  without  notes.  It  was  now  proposed  to  give  the  members 
notice  that  they  must  forward  to  the  Secretary  six  slides  in  two  or 
three  months'  time.  Some  members  would  write  many  notes  and 
make  drawings,  whilst  others  were  unable  or  unwilling  to  describe 
their  slides.  If  members  did  not  send  slides,  he  thought  it  only  fair 
to  the  other  members  to  ask  them  to  pay  a  monetary  equivalent. 
Whether  the  slides  should  be  given  to  the  members  or  placed 
in  the  Reference-Cabinet,  he  left  to  the  meeting  to  decide. 

The  President  invited  the  members  to  express  their  views  on 
the  proposed  alteration  of  rules,  adding,  that  it  certainly  appeared 
to  him,  that  the  proposal  with  regard  to  asking  for  a  certain  num- 
ber of  slides  in  the  commencement  of  the  year  was  worthy  of 
their  consideration  and  acceptance. 

Dr.  George  enquired  whether,  when  six  slides  were  asked  for, 
six  boxes  would  be  sent  to  each  member,  or  only  one  box  for  six 
slides  ? 

The  President  remarked  that  point  had  occurred  to  him,  and 
he  asked  if  there  would  be  any  objection  to  divide  the  slides  into 
batches  of  three  each  ? 

The  Secretary  said  he  presumed  that  many  members  would 
select  slides  that  had  some  bearing  on  the  same  subject,  thus 
forming  a  series. 

Dr.  George  considered  that  was  practically  making  special 
boxes,  as  was  done  some  time  ago. 

The  Secretary  further  explained  that  he  should  ask  for  these 
six  slides,  two  or  three  months  before  they  were  required.  A 
member  should  at  present  send  a  slide  once  a  fortnight.  There 
would,  therefore,  be  the  same  time  allowed  to  prepare  six  slides  as 
members  had  under  ordinary  circumstances  by  the  unaltered  rule. 
He  believed  that  with  the  new  arrangement  things  would  be  very 
much  as  at  present.  There  would  be  some  special  boxes  and 
some  miscellaneous. 

A  lengthened  discussion  followed,  in  which  Messrs.  George, 
Brown,  Parsons,  Barrett,  Teasdale,  Goodinge,  the  Rev.  E.  T. 
Stubbs,  and  others,  took  part. 

Dr.  Parsons  considered  that  one  thing  which  appeared  to 
interfere  with  the  working  and  usefulness  of  the  Society  was,  the 
members  never  saw  the  notes  made  upon  their  slides  except  those 
made  on  the  first  circuit.  The  notes  certainly  sometimes  went 
round  twice,  but  when  they  came  to  a  member  on  a  second  or 
subsequent  circuit;  if  some   point  arose   on  which  the  member 


OUR  ANNUAL   MEETING.  55 

desired  information,  or  to  ask  a  question,  there  was  no  chance 
whatever  of  doing  so. 

The  Secretary  said  it  was  this  difficulty  which  he  was  most 
desirous  of  remedying,  and  which,  he  felt  sure,  would  be  remedied 
by  the  suggestion  now  under  discussion. 

Dr.  Measures  enquired  if  an  increase  of  members  would 
necessitate  a  larger  number  of  boxes  ?  He  also  noticed  that  a 
box  which  had  lately  come  round  was  designated  by  a  letter  and 
number,  instead  of  a  geographical  distinction.  He  preferred  the 
latter.  He  feared  by  the  new  arrangement  they  would  lose  a 
little  of  the  spirit  of  emulation. 

The  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs  was  not  surprised  to  hear  the  last 
speaker  refer  to  the  boxes  being  distinguished  by  a  letter,  espe- 
cially in  view  of  the  suggested  formation  of  a  "  Z "  circuit  for 
offenders  who  delayed  the  boxes.  He  considered  that  was  a  very 
important  suggestion.  As  to  the  notes,  he  very  much  objected  to 
notes  of  a  personal  character. 

Dr.  Brown  proposed  that  the  report  should  be  passed  in  the 
regular  order.  As  to  the  proposed  distinction  of  ordinary  mem- 
bers, honorary  members,  and  fellows,  he  thought  they  had  much 
better  remain  as  they  were. 

Mr.  Teasdale  asked  whether  the  rules  would  be  taken  toge- 
ther or  separately  ? 

The  President  said  it  would  be  better  to  take  the  rules  one 
by  one  in  succession  ;  whereupon 

Dr.  Parsons  moved — "  That  the  Society  should  consist  of  a 
single  class  of  members  as  before."  He  did  not  see  the  necessity 
of  having  honorary  members. 

Mr.  Curties  approved  of  one  grade  of  members  and  all  to 
pay  alike.     He  seconded  the  resolution  with  great  pleasure. 

Mr.  Barrett  said,  as  to  the  distinction  between  "  members  " 
and  "  fellows,"  let  honour  be  to  those  who  deserved  honour.  He 
proposed — "  That  those  who  had  passed  the  chair  should  be 
entitled  to  the  honour  of  Fellowship." 

The  President  put  Dr.  Parsons'  resolution  to  the  meeting, 
which  was  carried. 

Dr.  Brown  wished  to  suggest  that  any  member  might  inform 
the  Secretary  when  he  wished  not  to  receive  the  boxes  for  a  time. 

Mr.  Curties  remarked  that  the  Committee  permitted  that  at 
present.  It  was  only  necessary  to  inform  the  Secretary  that  they 
were  non-effective  for  a  time. 

Mr.  Teasdale  said  the  previous  resolution  disposed  of  sug- 
gestions Nos.  2  and  3,  and  as  to  No.  4  it  was  not  quite  clear.  He 
wished  to  know  whether  the  slides  the  members  contributed 
should  be  sent  direct  to  the  Secretary,  or  would  boxes  go  round 


56  OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING. 

for  them  ?    If  they  were  to  vote  upon  the  rules,  they  should 
understand  them. 

The  President  said  it  was  only  necessary  to  strike  out  the 
words,  "  Fellows  and." 

Dr.  Measures  proposed  that  those  words  should  be  struck 
out,  and  the  rules  otherwise  stand  as  in  suggestion  4. 

The  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs  seconded  the  resolution,  which  was 
put  to  the  meeting,  and  carried. 

Mr.  Teasdale  thought  if  they  settled  the  general  principle  of 
the  rule,  Mr.  Allen  would  listen  to  all  the  suggestions  made  and 
harmonise  them.  He  thought  Mr.  Allen  had  shown  a  wonderful 
amount  of  intelligence  and  perseverance  in  trying  to  adapt  the 
Society  to  the  various  requirements  of  the  members.  They  had 
been  looking  at  the  slides  from  a  contributor's  point  of  view.  But 
there  was  another  point  of  view — the  recipient's.  Many  members 
cared  for  little  beyond  their  own  specialty ;  others,  especially  those 
in  remote  country  places,  where  they  had  little  opportunity  of 
seeing  good  slides,  preferred  variety.  He  had  no  distinct  propo- 
sition to  make,  but  he  thought  anything  they  should  pass  should 
be  permissive  and  suggestive  rather  than  obligatory. 

Dr.  Parsons  moved  "  That  each  member  pay  an  Annual 
Subscription  of  los.,  and  be  entitled  to  one  copy  of  the  Journal 
as  published,  and  that  he  shall  be  entitled  to  purchase  an  addi- 
tional copy  for  5s.  a  year,  subject  to  there  being  no  alteration  made 
in  the  selhng  price." 

Mr.  Cox  seconded  the  resolution,  which  was  put  to  the  meet- 
ing by  the  Chairman,  and  carried  in  the  usual  manner. 

Dr.  Measures  proposed  that  Rule  2  should  be — "  That  at 
those  times  when  it  shall  be  considered  desirable  to  renew  or 
exchange  the  sUdes  (not  being  oftener  than  at  intervals  of  twelve 
months),  all  members  be  required  to  send  to  the  Hon.  Sec.  six 
good  slides,  accompanied  by  notes,  and  where  practicable,  of 
drawings  in  illustration  of  the  same.  Suitable  MS.  books  and 
drawing-paper  will  be  supplied  by  the  Hon.  Sec." 

Dr.  Parsons  moved  that  suggestion  5  should  be  as  follows : — 
'*  That  those  members  who  do  not  wish  to  circulate  slides 
shall  be  allowed  to  receive  the  boxes  on  payment  of  5s.  a-year 
beyond  their  ordinary  subscription." 

Dr.  Brown  seconded  the  resolution,  which  was  put  to  the 
meeting,  and  carried. 

Dr.  Brown  proposed  that  suggestion  6  should  be — "  All  mem- 
bers who  circulate  some,  but  a  fewer  number  than  six  slides,  may 
compound  for  the  deficiency  by  paying  is.  each  for  the  remainder, 
making  six  slides  in  all." 

Mr.  Cox  seconded  the  resolution,  which  was  duly  put  to  the 
meeting,  and  carried. 


OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING.  57 

Mr.  Barrett  proposed  the  adoption  of  suggested  Rule  7. 

Dr.  Parsons  seconded  this,  which  was  duly  passed. 

Mr.  Curties  begged  to  interrupt  the  meeting  for  a  moment. 
Suggestions  8  and  9  were  proposed,  he  presumed,  for  the  convenience 
of  the  Secretary.  He  thought  it  was  doubtful  whether  the  adoption 
of  such  rules  would  be  of  any  real  advantage  to  him.  At  the 
same  time  he  was  sure  the  Secretary  had  sufficient  knowledge  of 
the  work  to  advise  members.  He  ventured  to  suggest  whether 
they  really  required  Rules  8  and  9. 

The  President  said  they  would  take  Rule  10. 

Mr.  Curties  remarked  that  although  the  rule  was  very  much 
objected  to,  some  plan  might,  perhaps,  be  suggested  that  would 
meet  the  case. 

Dr.  Brown  thought  that  the  proposed  rule  would  be  more 
trouble  than  it  was  worth. 

The  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs  proposed  that  the  rule  be  amended 
thus — "  That  any  member  detaining  boxes  beyond  the  proper 
period  shall  be  relegated  to  a  circuit  of  such  defaulters  alone." 
It  was  necessary  to  hold  a  rod  in  terrorem  over  these  members. 

Dr.  Brown  seconded  Mr.  Stubbs's  proposal,  and  thought  that 
there  must  first  be  some  repetition  of  the  offence  before  acting  on 
the  rule  ;  he  would  say,  after  being  repeated  three  times. 

The  President  put  the  resolution  as  proposed  by  the  Rev.  E. 
T.  Stubbs  and  seconded  by  Dr.  Brown,  and  the  same  was  carried. 

Mr.  Goodinge  thought  that  Rule  1 1  would  lead  a  member 
into  office  and  teach  him  his  duties.  It  appeared  to  him  a  very 
good  arrangement. 

Dr.  Brown  remarked  that  it  would  do  away  with  the  election 
of  President. 

Mr.  Curties,  in  seconding  the  resolution,  observed  that  that 
was  one  of  the  points  kept  in  view,  that  in  case  of  the  illness  of 
the  President,  the  Vice-President  should  fulfil  his  duties. 

Dr.  Brown  said  that  the  Vice-President  might  decline  the 
office,  and  then  there  would  be  no  machinery  for  the  election  of 
President. 

Dr.  Parsons  proposed  that  the  President  should  be  elected  a 
year  in  advance,  and  so  give  him  time  to  think  over  what  he 
would  like  to  speak  about  when  he  assumed  the  office  of  President 
the  following  year.  He  begged  to  propose  that  resolution,  and 
that  on  the  expiration  of  his  year  of  office  the  President  should 
become  Vice-President. 

Mr.  Goodinge  proposed  that  Rule  1 1  be  adopted,  except  that 
what  had  been  cancelled  by  the  previous  rules  should  be  struck 
out. 

Dr.  Parsons  seconded  the  resolution,  which  was  put  to  the 
meeting,  and  carried. 


58  OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING. 

The  Secretary  stated  that  at  the  time  when  the  arrangements 
were  made  for  that  meeting,  two  names  were  proposed  for  the 
election  of  President  and  Vice-President.  Dr.  Partridge  had 
since  written,  and  requested  that  his  name  should  be  taken  off 
the  list.  It  was  too  late  to  make  any  fresh  nomination,  and  he, 
the  Hon  Secretary,  thought  it  was  right  that  their  respected 
friend.  Dr.  George,  should  be  elected  Vice-President  for  this  year, 
and  President  for  the  year  following.  He  was  one  of  their  earliest 
members. 

Mr.  Goodinge  proposed  that  Dr.  George  be  Vice-President 
for  the  ensuing  year,  and  President  next  year. 

Mr.  Teasdale  seconded  the  resolution,  which,  being  put  to 
the  meeting,  was  carried  unanimously. 

Dr.  George  said  he  was  very  much  obliged  to  the  members 
for  the  honour  they  had  done  him  in  electing  him  Vice-President. 
He  trusted  that  during  his  year  of  office  as  Vice-President  he 
would  be  able  to  qualify  himself  for  the  office  of  President  in  the 
year  following. 

Dr.  Measures  enquired  if  there  were  any  changes  in  the 
Officers  or  Committee  ?  No  intimation  of  the  Committee  on  the 
subject  had  reached  him.  He  did  not  see  that  because  Bath  was 
the  "Queen  of  the  West,"  it  was  necessarily  "the  hub  of  the  uni- 
verse." He  should  like  to  see  some  members  on  the  Committee 
from  other  parts  of  the  country.  He  did  not  object  to  a  Sub- 
Committee  at  Bath. 

The  President  thought  that  there  were  members  on  the 
Committee  from  other  parts  besides  Bath. 

The  Secretary  read  over  the  names  of  the  Committee  as  it 
at  present  existed.  • 

Dr.  Brown  enquired  if  the  present  members  would  continue 
their  services  ?  and  then  proposed  that  the  present  Committee  be 
re-elected,  with  power  to  add  to  their  number  to  fill  up  any 
vacancies. 

Mr.  Bostock  having  seconded  the  resolution,  it  was  put  to 
the  meeting  by  the  Chairman,  and  carried  unanimously. 

Dr.  Parsons  said,  having  satisfactorily  disposed  of  all  the 
business  of  the  meeting,  he  should  Hke  to  indulge  in  a  Httle 
relaxation.  The  toast  he  had  to  propose  needed  no  eloquence 
of  his  to  recommend  it.  Of  the  Chairman,  Mr.  Hammond,  he 
need  not  speak  in  praise,  or  of  his  contributions  to  the  Society  by 
pen,  pencil,  and  slides.  He  felt  the  greatest  pleasure  in  proposing 
the  President's  health.  It  was  not  saying  too  much  to  say  that  he 
was  a  very  great  honour  to  their  Society.  He  had  done  as  much 
as  any  member  to  raise  the  status  of  the  Society  and  the  Journal. 
The  members  of  the  Committee  also  had  worked  hard,  much 


OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING.  59 

more  than  some  of  the  members  had  any  idea.  He  was  very 
sorry  to  hear  of  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Green.  Their  worthy 
Secretary  was  the  hfe  and  soul  of  the  Society.  But  for  his  exer- 
tions in  their  behalf,  the  Society  would  have  dissolved  into  dis- 
connected atoms.  He  begged  to  propose  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the 
President  and  Officers.     (Applause.) 

The  President  expressed  his  sincere  thanks  for  the  kind 
remarks  in  reference  to  himself  He  had  felt  it  to  be  an  honour, 
and  a  great  honour,  to  be  President  of  the  "  Postal  Microscopical 
Society."  The  office  had  involved  by  no  means  the  amount  of 
work  which  the  Committee,  and  especially  the  Secretary,  had  to 
go  through.  He  thought  their  thanks  were  very  much  more  due 
to  the  Committee  and  Secretary  than  to  himself  for  anything 
which  he  had  done  for  the  Society. 

The  Secretary,  in  responding,  said  that  year  after  year  it  had 
always  been  his  pride  to  hear  them  speak  of  the  progress  of  the 
Society.  Anything  which  he  had  attempted  to  do  for  the  success 
of  the  Society  he  had  done  with  the  greatest  pleasure.  He  had 
sometimes  to  grumble  at  members,  but  he  always  tried  to  do  it 
kindly.     He  felt  the  kindness  of  the  words  that  had  been  spoken. 

The  President  said  it  had  been  his  intention  to  have  ad- 
dressed a  few  remarks  to  the  members  on  the  subject  of  the  Notes 
which  had  been  contributed  relating  to  the  slides  circulated  in  the 
boxes,  but  the  time  had  so  far  advanced  that  he  must  leave  the 
matter  in  the  hands  of  the  Editor  of  the  Journal  to  dispose  of  as 
he  thought  best. 

In  announcing  the  next  toast  of  the  evening,  "The  President," 
he  stated  that  Dr.  Coombs,  the  new  President,  was  unable  to  be 
present  that  evening. 

Mr.  Curties  inquired  if  any  communication  had  been 
received  from  Dr.  Coombs? 

The  Secretary  said  that  on  the  previous  morning  he 
had  received  a  letter  from  Dr.  Coombs,  stating  that  at  the  last 
moment  he  found  himself  unable  to  attend  the  meeting,  but  he 
had  sent  a  written  address.  As  this  address  would  appear  in  the 
Journal,  he  thought  it  might  be  taken  as  read.  He  would  say 
briefly  that  Dr.  Coombs  spoke  of  the  Society  in  very  complimen- 
tary terms,  and  dealt  with  the  subject  of  "Microscopy  in  everyday- 
life,"  and  closed  his  remarks  with  the  hope  that  in  his  absence  the 
chair  would  be  occupied  by  a  much  better  chairman.  He  deeply 
regretted  his  inability  to  attend. 

Mr.  Teasdale  proposed  the  next  toast,  "  Success  to  the 
Postal  Microscopical  Society."  He  would  rather  the  duty  had 
fallen  to  one  who  had  done  more  during  the  last  year.  The 
Society  had  been  worked  up  to  a  great  state  of  efficiency,  which 


60  OUR  ANNUAL  MEETING. 

he  attributed  to  the  genius  and  untiring  perseverance  of  Mr. 
Allen.  The  members  had  not  in  past  years  had  everything  put 
before  them  in  such  a  highly  satisfactory  aspect  as  had  been  done 
that  evening.  All  this  was  due  in  a  great  measure  to  Mr.  Allen. 
He  begged  to  propose  "  The  continued  success  of  the  Postal 
Microscopical  Society.'' 

The  toast  was  drunk  with  enthusiasm. 

The  President  proposed  the  toast,  "  The  Royal  Microscopi- 
cal and  Kindred  Societies,"  coupling  with  it  the  name  of  Mr. 
Goodinge,  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society. 

Mr.  Goodinge,  in  responding,  regretted  that  there  was  no 
distinguished  member  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society  present. 
They  had  some  very  pleasant  meetings  at  the  "Royal,"  and  an  excel- 
lent President  and  Secretary.  Those  who  were  accustomed  to 
receive  the  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society,"  edited  by 
Mr.  Crisp,  would  see  that  it  was  very  different  from  what  it  was  a 
few  years  ago.  Their  Society  was  very  pleased  to  associate 
itself  with  the  "^  Postal  Microscopical  Society,"  believing  it  accom- 
plished good  work,  especially  in  country  districts.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  "Quekett  Club,"  and  had  great  pleasure  in  respond- 
ing to  the  toast  for  that  Society  also.  Their  friend.  Dr.  Cooke, 
was  President  of  the  "  Quekett."  It  afforded  him  much  plea- 
sure to  meet  them  on  the  present  occasion.  He  was  not  a  work- 
ing member,  as  many  of  them  knew,  but  he  should  not  like  to  be 
out  of  the  swim.  He  hoped  soon  to  be  receiving  boxes  again. 
He  thanked  them  for  the  kind  way  in  which  the  toast  had  been 
drunk. 

The  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs  proposed  the  next  toast,  "  The  Visit- 
ors." He  felt  exceedingly  unworthy  to  propose  the  toast  because 
it  included  the  ladies,  who  could  not  answer  for  themselves,  at 
least  on  that  occasion  ;  perhaps  they  might  on  other  occasions. 
(Laughter.)  He  coupled  with  the  toast  the  name  of  Mr.  Romyn 
Hitchcock,  the  editor  of  "  The  American  Monthly  Microscopical 
Journal,"  whom  they  were  all  very  glad  to  meet.  It  was  of  great 
importance  to  have  visitors  present,  and  they  were  al^'ays  exceed- 
ingly pleased  to  see  them. 

Mr.  Romyn  Hitchcock,  in  responding  for  the  Visitors, 
expressed  his  obligation  to  the  gentleman  who  proposed  the  toast 
for  relieving  him  to  some  extent  of  the  embarrassing  duty  of 
responding  for  the  ladies.  Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  hour,  he 
would  not  detain  them  by  many  words.  It  afforded  him  great 
pleasure  to  meet  the  members  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society 
that  evening.  It  had  a  great  interest  to  him  owing  to  the  excel- 
lent work  it  was  capable  of  accomplishing,  and  which  he  had  no 
doubt  it  did  accomplish,  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  Secre- 


OUR  ANNUAL  MEETIG.  61 

tary  and  individual  members.  They  were,  no  doubt,  aware  that 
they  had  in  the  United  States  a  similar  organisation,  which  had 
been  in  existence  some  8  or  9  years  and  which  had  done  great 
good  in  spreading  microscopy  through  the  country.  He  had 
taken  special  interest  in  the  working  of  that  Society.  They  had 
in  the  States,  which  were  almost  infinitely  larger  than  England,  a 
great  many  small  towns  in  what  was  almost  a  wilderness.  The 
members  of  that  Society  would  be  surprised,  if  they  were  situ- 
ated as  he  was,  to  know  how  many  real  good  workers  with 
the  microscope  there  were,  scattered  about  in  those  small  towns 
and  villages,  who  had  no  means  whatever  of  seeing  the  microscopi- 
cal preparations  which  were  made  in  the  larger  towns,  except 
they  were  members  of  the  "Postal  IMicroscopical  Cabinet  Club," 
as  it  was  called.  To  these  the  privileges  of  the  Club  were  of 
great  value.  It  was  true  that  a  great  many  of  the  slides  which 
were  circulated  were  of  no  value  to  anybody  ;  at  the  same  time, 
they  put  up  with  boxes  of  comparatively  little  value,  for  the  sake 
of  the  benefit  derived  from  the  good  slides  which  were  sent 
round.  There  was  one  feature  in  which  he  believed  the  So- 
ciety in  Great  Britain  excelled  their  own,  and  that  was  in  the 
completeness  of  the  notes  and  drawings  which  were  sent  round 
with  the  preparations.  He  had  frequently  alluded  to  this 
matter,  and  in  many  cases  a  great  desire  was  expressed  that 
there  should  be  an  improvement.  .  He  hoped  that  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Journal  which  was  associated  with  this  Society 
would  advance  and  improve  the  work  that  was  done  by  the 
American  Society.  He  begged  to  thank  them  for  the  kind 
reception  he  had  received,  and  trusted  that  the  time  would  soon 
come  when  their  own  Society  would  be  as  far  advanced  as  the 
English  Society.     (Applause.) 

Mr.  Teasdale  said  there  was  a  very  serious  omission  in  his 
previous  remarks.  He  ought  to  have  alluded  to  the  Journal. 
They  had  great  reason  to  congratulate  themselves  upon  the 
present  issue  of  the  Journal,  and  they  ought  to  thank  Mr.  Allen 
for  his  services  as  its  editor.  Mr.  Hitchcock's  observations  had 
reminded  them  of  the  very  great  benefit  it  was  to  themselves  and 
other  societies,  and  he  also  had  told  them  that  it  was  appreciated 
in  America.  It  was  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  and  a  very  suc- 
cessful one. 

The  evening's  proceedings  closed  at  a  late  hour.  There  was 
consequently  no  opportunity  of  inspecting  the  specimens  which 
some  of  the  members  had  brought  for  examination. 


[  62] 


1Revie\\)0» 


Studies  in  Microscopical  Science.  Edited  by  Arthur  C. 
Cole,  F.R.M.S.  Vol.  I.,  with  Fifty  Three  Lithographic  Plates. 
{London:  Bailliere.  Tindall^  a  fid  Cox.)     1883. 

The  first  volume  of  these  most  valuable  studies,  neatly  bound 
in  cloth,  is  now  before  us.  It  consists  of  330  pages,  including  a 
very  copious  index.  Throughout  the  entire  work,  each  subject 
appears  to  be  treated  in  a  very  thorough  manner ;  e.g.,  we  find 
that  each  subject  is,  first,  considered  Etymologically ;  next  Des- 
criptively; the  various  methods  of  Preparation  are  next  given; 
then  we  have  the  complete  Bibliography  of  the  subject. 

The  entire  work  is  divided  into  two  sections,  which  were  deli- 
vered alternately  to  weekly  subscribers.  Section  A.  is  devoted  to 
Animal  Histology.  Section  B.  divides  its  favours  between  Botany 
and  Petrology.  In  this  section  we  need  not  say  that  Botany  takes 
the  chief  share  of  the  work.  The  individual  subjects  have  been 
so  frequently  brought  before  the  microscopical  world,  both  in  this 
and  other  journals,  that  we  feel  it  unnecessary  to  repeat  them 
here ;  suffice  it  to  say,  the  plates  are,  without  exception,  executed 
in  a  very  superior  style  of  chromo-lithography,  and  many  of  them 
are  of  double  size.  Of  the  sHdes  which  accompany  these  studies, 
we  feel  that  it  would  be  a  waste  of  words  to  say  more  of  them 
than  that  they  are  prepared  and  mounted  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Cole,  of 
St.  Domingo  House. 


Popular  Microscopical  Studies.  Edited  by  Arthur  C- 
Cole,  RR.M.S. 

Studies  in  Microscopical  Science.  Vol.  II.  Edited  by 
Arthur  C.  Cole,  F.R.M.S. 

The  Methods  of  Microscopical  Research.  An  Introduc- 
tory Essay  to  Vol.  11.  of  the  "  Studies  in  Microscopical  Science." 
Edited  by  Arthur  C.  Cole,  F.R.M.S. 

Having  completed  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Studies  "  with  so 
much  credit,  and,  we  trust,  with  an  equal  amount  of  satisfaction 
and  profit  to  himself,  Mr.  Cole  has  launched  out  into  three  very 
excellent  works,  in  each  of  which  we  trust  he  may  meet  with 
the  encouragement  he  so  richly  deserves. 

Of  the  Methods  of  Microscopical  Research,  the  first  four 
parts  are  to  hand,  and  appear  fully  fitted  to  form  an  Introduction 


REVIEWS.  63 

to  the  Study  of  Microscopy  in  general,  or  of  Mr.  Cole's  "  Studies" 
in  particular.  The  subjects  at  present  laid  before  us  are  entitled, 
On  Instruments,  Reagents,  Methods  of  Preparation,  Microscopi- 
cal Art,  The  Microscope^  The  Human  Eye  and  its  relation  to 
Microscopical  Observation,  The  Preparation  of  Animal  Tissues. 
This  latter  subject,  as  we  naturally  expected,  from  a  man  of  such 
practical  experience,  is  treated  in  a  very  masterly  manner. 

Two  parts  only  of  the  "  Popular  Studies  "  are  to  hand.  No.  i 
is  devoted  to  Hebridian  Gneiss,  and  gives,  first,  a  description  of 
the  Rock,  and  next.  How  to  Prepare  a  Rock-Section  for  the 
Microscope,  and  is  illustrated  with  a  fine  coloured  lithograph. 
No.  2  is  descriptive  of  the  Human  Scalp,  the  hair  being  minutely 
described.  This  number  is  illustrated  with  a  coloured  plate  of 
Hor.  Sec.  of  the  human  scalp  injected. 

Of  the  "  Studies  in  Microscopical  Science,"  seven  parts  have 
reached  us,  and  are,  as  a  whole,  we  think,  quite  equal  to  those 
of  Vol.  I.  The  series,  as  was  that  of  last  year,  is  divided  into 
two  classes,  viz.,  Animal  and  Botanical,  the  subject  of  study  in 
each  case  up  to  the  present  being  the  Morphology  of  the  Cell ; 
the  chromo-lithographs  issued  being  Polycystina,  Globigerina 
ooze,  Lon.  Sec.  Scale-Leaf  of  Fritillaria  imperialis.  Trans.  Sec. 
Stem  of  Pinus  Sylvestris,  Blood  of  Frog,  and  Arachnoidiscus 
Ehrenbergii. 


The  American  Psychological  Journal.  Issued  by  the 
National  Association  for  the  Protection  of  the  Insane  and  Preven- 
tion of  Insanity.  Vol.  I.,  No.  3,  October,  1883.  {F.  Blakistofiy 
Son,  and  Co.,  Philadelphia.) 

This  is  a  well-got-up  quarterly,  and  appears  to  handle  the 
subject  in  a  very  masterly  manner. 


The  Science  Monthly.  {David  Bogue  and  E.  JV.  Allen.) 
Parts  I  and  2  of  this  new  illustrated  monthly  are  to  hand. 
The  contents  are,  as  we  are  led  to  judge  from  the  title,  of  a 
varied  character,  well  selected,  and  of  a  particularly  interesting 
nature,  and  the  illustrations  are  good.  In  The  Museum,  No.  i, 
we  find  a  paper  on  Microscopy  by  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Davis,  and  in  No. 
2  on  the  Verification  of  Microscopical  Observations  by  Mr.  A. 
McCalla,  Pres.  Amer.  Soc.  Micro.  Under  the  "  Leaders  of 
Science,"  we  have  portraits  of  Sir  G.  B.  Airy  and  Sir  John 
Lubbock. 


64  REVIEWS. 

^Efje  §ui\}tQ  at  Batl^e^s  ^g^e,  m  tje  Eefgn  of  ((DfjarUg  UK.  By 
Chas.  E.  Davis,  F.S.A.,  etc.  {Bath :  Printed  by  William  Lewis 
and  So7t,  and  to  be  sold  by  them  at  the  Towne  Gate^  at  the  sig7i  of 
the  Herald.)     mdccclxxxiii. 

This  book  comes  very  opportunely  after  our  two  articles  in  the 
last  Part  of  this  Journal  on  "  Organisms  Found  in  the  Newly-Dis- 
covered (Ancient)  Baths  of  Bath,"  and  "  A  Description  of  the 
Ancient  Roman  Baths." 

We  have  before  us  now  a  book  got  up  in  the  style  of  the  17th 
century,  and  illustrated  by  a  photograph  from  a  drawing  of  the 
King's  and  Queen's  Bath  of  that  date.  After  giving  an  account  of 
the  Mineral  Baths  as  they  were  used  at  that  period,  a  description 
of  "  ye  antient  citie  "  follows,  "  whereunto  "  is  annexed  a  visit  to 
Bath  in  the  year  1675  by  a  "  Person  of  Quality." 

Of  a  similar  book  written  on  any  other  city,  we  should  be 
inclined  to  say  that  it  was  of  "  considerable  local  interest,"  but  of 
the  book  before  us  we  may  assert  that  it  is  of  general  interest. 
We  have  just  heard  that  Her  Most  Gracious  Majesty  the  Queen 
has  been  pleased  to  accept  a  copy. 


Vignettes  from  Invisible  Life.  By  John  Badcock,  F.  R.M.S. 
(^London:  Cassell  and  Co.) — The  author  says: — "This  book 
assumes  as  a  fact  that  very  few,  even  otherwise  well  educated 
people  know  anything  of  the  life  here  treated  of,  and  consequently 
pretends  to  convey  that  knowledge  to  them,  or  at  any  rate  to 
introduce  the  subject  to  their  notice,  and  so  peradventure  awaken 
such  an  interest  in  their  minds  as  shall  induce  further  investiga- 
tion." We  have  read  the  book  with  a  great  deal  of  interest.  It 
treats  of  Plant- Animals  (Vorticella,  etc.);  Brick-Makers  {Mellarta, 
etc.);  Crystalline  Vases  {Step/iajiosceros,  etc.);  Revolving-Plants 
(  Volvox) ;  Hydra ;  Water-Bears  ;  a  Subaqueous  City  (Sponges) ; 
and  many  other  equally  interesting  subjects.  The  descriptions 
are  written  in  a  thoroughly  popular  and  very  readable  style.  The 
Vignettes,  of  which  there  are  27,  are  well  executed. 


We  have  recently  received  the  first  three  parts  of  Mr.  Whel- 
don's  Catalogue  of  Zoological  Works.  (London :  ^8,  Great  Qiieefi 
Street.) — Part  i  is  devoted  to  works  on  Entomology,  Parts  2  and  3 
to  works  relating  to  Mollusca,  Conchology,  Crustacea,  Corals, 
Zoophytes,  Reptiles,  Transactions  of  Societies,  and  Microscopy, 
besides  the  higher  orders  of  Zoology. 


CURRENT   NOTES   AND    MEMORANDA.  65 

Science  Record,  Vol.  II.,  No.  i.  (S.  E.  Cassino  and  Co.^ 
Boston,    U.S.A.) 

This  magazine  came  to  hand  at  the  moment  of  going  to  press. 
We  have  only  space  to  say  that  the  majority  of  the  papers  relate 
to  Microscopy;  whilst  those  devoted  to  Physical  and  Natural 
Science  are  short  and  somewhat  unconnected.  The  number  con- 
tains 24  pages,  to  which  are  added  12  pages  of  advertisements. 


The  Naturalist's  World  and  Scientific  Record,  Vol.  I., 
No.  I.  {Londo?i :  IV.  Swa?in,  Son?ie?ischem,  and  Co.) — A  well  got 
up  little  Magazine.  Its  subjects  are  simple,  varied,  and  pleasantly 
written. 


Current  IRotea  anb  HDemoranba. 


Our  readers  will  be  pleased  to  learn  that  Handsomely-bound 
copies  of  the  two  first  volumes  of  the  "Journal  of  the  Postal 
Microscopical  Society  "  have  been  sent  to  H.R.H.  Prince  Leo- 
pold, Duke  of  Albany,  for  which  His  Royal  Highness  has  ex- 
pressed his  thanks,  and  states  that  he  evinces  great  interest  in  the 
work  of  the  "  Postal  Microscopical  Society." 


A  rich  treat  for  the  members  of  the  Postal  Microscopical 
Society  has  just  been  afforded  through  the  kindness  of  Miss  E.  E. 
Jarrett,  in  the  shape  of  a  unique  and  almost  exhaustive  series  of 
slides,  showing  the  Fructification  of  the  greater  portion  of  our 
known  Ferns, 

The  whole  are  systematically  arranged  in  a  handsome  maho- 
gany Cabinet,  accompanied  by  a  note-book,  made  to  fit,  of  which 
some  90  or  100  pages  of  MS.  descriptive  notes  are  already  added. 
As  the  cost  of  the  carriage  of  this  box  may,  by  some  members,  be 
considered  excessive,  it  will  be  sent  only  to  those  who  desire  to 
see  it.  The  charge  for  postage  from  one  member  to  another  will 
be  9d.,  as  it  weighs  under  5  lbs.  Each  member  may  keep  it  7 
days  only,  and  if  a  special  circuit  can  be  formed  for  it,  they  will 
simply  be  required  to  pay  postage  to  next  name  on  the  list.  Other- 
wise they  must,  of  course,  pay  postage  both  ways.  Space  is  left 
in  MS.  book  for  further  notes  and  observations. 

p 


66  CURRENT    NOTES   AND   MEMORANDA. 

We  have  much  pleasure  in  informing  our  readers  that  the 
Depot  which  has  been  opened  in  Jersey  for  the  supply  of  Natural 
History  specimens  is  proving  a  great  success. 

We  are  given  to  understand  that  Messrs.  Sinel  and  Co.  have 
peculiarly  favourable  opportunities  for  procuring  all  kinds  of 
Microscopical  Marine  Life,  which  they  carefully  name  and  pre- 
serve. The  slides,  which  are  unique  in  their  method  of  prepara- 
tion, are  specially  adapted  for  spot-lens  illumination.  These  we 
can  recommend  with  confidence  to  our  readers. 

Jersey,  with  its  almost  tropical  climate,  affords  a  rich  hunting- 
ground  for  the  naturalist,  and  we  are  glad  to  find  that  Messrs. 
Sinel  and  Co.  have  secured  the  opportunity,  and  that  they  are 
meeting  with  a  most  cordial  response  to  their  undertaking. 

Students  of  marine  fife  will  do  well,  first,  to  write  for  Sinel 
and  Co.'s  Circular,  and  then  make  a  judicious  selection. 

We  have  ourselves  received  repeated  orders  from  America  for 
Sinel  and  Co.'s  specialities,  and  have  been  told  that  their  5s. 
jars  of  living  marine  organisms  have  given  great  satisfaction. 


Mr.  Wm.  West,  of  Bradford,  has  favoured  us  with  a  large 
selection  of  his  objects,  prepared  for  microscopical  mounting,  con- 
sisting of  Diatoms,  Spicules,  Animal  Hairs,  Palates,  Anatomical 
Sections  Injected  and  Stained,  Vegetable  Sections  Double  Stained, 
and  Miscellaneous,  both  Botanical  and  Non-Botanical. 

These  objects  are  prepared  by  S.  Louis,  of  Paris.  At  present 
we  have  had  time  to  mount  but  a  few  of  the  above.  We  think 
they  are  all  well  prepared.  The  quantity  is  abundant,  and  in 
many  cases  quite  sufficient  for  a  number  of  slides. 


Skeletons  with  Care. — The  above  was  the  startling  label 
attached  to  a  somewhat  bulky  parcel  received  by  "  Parcels  Post " 
a  short  time  ago.  That  the  editor's  sanctum  is  often  the  reception- 
room  for  strange  visitors  is,  of  course,  tolerably  well  known ;  but 
that  skeletons  should  thus  introduce  themselves  is  a  little  out  of 
the  regular  run  of  common  events.  Who  could  our  skeleton 
visitor  be  and  what  could  be  his  errand  our  well-used  scissors  soon 
solved. 

Readers  of  Parts  7  and  8  of  our  Journal,  published  together 
in  October,  will  remember  that  we  stated  that  Mr.  E.  Wade- 
Wilton,  of  Leeds,  was  now  directing  his  attention  to  the  supply  of 
Animal  and  Vegetable  specimens  suitable  for  Biological  Class 
Demonstration.     The  skeleton  referred  to  proved  to  be  that  of  a 


CURRENT   NOTES   AND   MEMORANDA.  67 

Frog  {Rana  fe?np07'aria),  excellently  cleaned  and  mounted  on  a 
^tout,  dead-black  mill-board.  The  various  limbs,  so  far  as  is 
practicable,  are  detached  and  arranged  in  natural  order  on  the 
board,  to  which  they  are  affixed  by  an  elastic  cord,  so  that  each 
may  be  removed  for  individual  inspection.  Thus  we  have — 
The  upper  part  of  the  head  with  the  vertebra,  the  lower  jaw,  the 
two  arms  and  hands,  the  sternum,  the  hyoid  bone  or  cartilage,  the 
pelvic  arch,  and  the  two  hind  legs  and  posterior  hands. 

In  a  separate  box,  Mr.  Wilton  has  also  sent  us  the  head  of  a 
Frog,  mounted  on  a  small,  square,  black  card.  We  are  much 
pleased  to  receive  these  specimens,  and  think  that  Mr.  Wilton's 
energies  are  being  applied  in  the  right  direction,  and  trust  that  he 
may  be  well  remunerated  for  his  labours.  We  understand  that 
Mr.  Wade-Wilton  has  gone  so  largely  into  his  new  enterprise  that 
he  is  now  able  to  take  orders  for  dozens  of  his  various  subjects  on 
very  liberal  terms,  and  that  single  specimens  of  the  entire  skeleton 
may  be  purchased  of  him  for  4s.  6d.,  or  one  where  the  whole 
skeleton  is  permanently  attached  to  the  card  for  about  3s.  6d. 
We  suppose  the  head  alone  mounted  on  a  card  in  a  neat  box  will 
sell  for  about  2s. 


The  American  Naturalist  has  just  completed  its  17th  Vol. 
The  promises  made  by  its  editors  in  the  January  part,  have  been 
very  honestly  carried  out,  and  we  have  before  us  a  volume  of 
some  1330  pages,  carefully  printed,  and  well  illustrated.  The 
December  part,  which  reached  us  a  few  days  ago,  contains  several 
articles  of  much  interest  to  the  Microscopist,  amongst  which  we 
may  mention  "  Development  of  the  Dandelion,"  "  Notes  on  the 
Ch(Etonotus  lariis^''  an  animal  about  1-2  2  5th  of  an  inch  in  length, 
found  in  the  fine  debris  over  the  bottom  of  ponds,  streams,  and 
springs  :  "  Experiments  with  the  Antennae  of  Insects."  Owing  to 
its  size,  the  volume  is  divided  into  two  parts,  each  supplied  with 
a  valuable  index. 


Mounting  Minute  Insects  and  Acari  in  Balsam. — Mr.   A.    D. 

Michael  describes  his  process  in  the  "  Quekett  Journal "  as  fol- 
lows— He  first  kills  the  creature  in  hot  water  or  spirit ;  hard  insects 
and  Acari  are  best  killed  in  hot  water,  which  causes  them  to 
expand  their  legs,  but  spirit  is  better  than  water  for  minute  flies. 
Next  wash  the  object  thoroughly  in  spirit,  and  clean  with  badger 's- 
hair  brush,  leave  it  in  spirit  for  a  time,  tilt  the  slip  to  drain  off  the 
spirit,  but  do  not  dry  the  object,  which  should  7iever  be  allowed  to 
dry  from  first  to  the  final  mounting.  Having  drained  off  the 
spirit,  drop  on  the  object  a  little  oil  of  cloves,  slightly  warm  the 


68  CUKRENT  NOTES  AND  MEMORANDA. 

slide,  and  put  on  a  thin  cover-glass,  which  must  be  supported  so  as 
not  to  touch  the  object ;  leave  it  until  thoroughly  soaked.  If 
necessary,  remove  to  a  clean  slip  for  finally  mounting.  Drain  off 
the  oil  of  cloves  and  put  on  a  quantity  of  Canada  balsam  in 
benzole;  arrange  the  creature  on  the  slide.  Let  the  balsam  harden 
a  little,  and  then  the  object  will  not  float  off,  as  often  happens 
when  a  quantity  of  balsam  is  used  at  once.  Lower  the  cover  on 
to  the  object.  It  is  better  not  to  put  enough  balsam  to  fill  the 
space  under  the  cover,  as  the  balsam  supports  the  cover  if  it  does 
not  reach  the  edge,  but  if  it  reaches  the  edge  it  is  apt  to  draw 
down  the  cover  and  crush  delicate  objects.  A  few  pieces  of  thin 
glass  to  support  the  cover  are  a  great  protection  to  the  object,  or 
better  still,  a  few  tiny  glass  beads. 

Finish  off  with  a  ring  of  Bell's  cement,  but  this  must  only  be 
done  if  the  cover  is  supported  as  recommended. 


We  regret  that  our  article  in  the  present  issue  on  the 
FoRAMiNiFERA  OF  Galway  provcd  to  be  too  long  for  insertion 
in  one  part.  We  hope  to  complete  it  in  April,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  article  shall  give  the  explanation  to  the  four  plates,  with  the 
exact  magnification  of  each  form. 


Whilst  correcting  the  last  proof-sheet  of  our  Journal,  we 
received  a  communication  from  S.  C.  Hall,  Esq.,  President  of  the 
Carlisle  Microscopical  Society,  from  which  we  learn  that 
Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter  has  been  made  Hon.  Vice-President  of  that 
Society. 

In  a  letter  in  which  Dr.  Carpenter  accepts  the  office  of  Vice- 
President  he  suggests  that  Microscopists  should  study  more  thor- 
oughly the  life  history  of  Diatoms,  Monads,  and  Disease-germs. 

We  regret  that  space  forbids  our  publishing  the  Doctor's  letter 
in  exte?iso,  but  hope  to  refer  to  it  on  another  occasion. 


Microscopic  Slides. — Will  supply  a  microscopist  with  a  small 
or  large  interesting  collection,  in  exchange  for  Natural  History  or 
other  good  Books,  Apparatus,  Parlour  Pastime,  or  anything  of 
interest  or  utility. — J.  Morton,  The  Lindens,  New  Brompton,  Kent. 


Wanted,  a  scrap  of  Synapta  Skin  in  exchange  for  other  mate- 
rial.— J.  Morton,  New  Brompton,  Kent. 


Wanted,  Rare  Parasites,  Mounted  or  Unmounted.    Unmounted 
Parasites  or  other  material  will  be  given  in  exchange. — Editor. 


Journal   of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3,  PL  9. 


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THE    JOURNAL    OF    MICROSCOPY 

AND 

NATURAL    SCIENCE: 

the  journal  of 
The   Postal   Microscopical  Society. 


APRIL,     1884. 


©It  p0?cboptcra  paluboea* 

By  a.  Hammond,  F.L.S. 


Plate 


ARLY  in    the   spring   of   last   year   I    found    some 
sluggish-looking  larvae  in  the  mud  of  a  pond  near 
Finsbury  Park,  which  I  at  first  thought  were  the 
Rat-tailed  maggots,  the  larvae  of  the  Drone   Fly, 
Eristalis  tenax ;    but   on  reaching    home,   I  soon 
found  this  was  not  the  case,   and  on  reference  to 
Lyonet,"^   discovered  the  object  of  my  search  in 
one  of  his  plates  as  a  Tipulid  Fly,  under  the  tide 
of    Psy  diopter  a  paludosa.     On  page    192   he    des- 
cribes the  insect  in  all  its  stages.     I  have,   myself,   only   seen  the 
larva   and   pupa,    which  present  several  points  of   interest,   and 
which  I  purpose  here  to  recount,  contenting  myself  with  Lyonet's 
description  of  the  imago.     The  larvae  are  of  a  dirty  white  colour, 
the  transparent  integument  allowing  much  of  their  organisation  to 

*  Recherches  sur  I'anatomie  et  metamorphoses  de  differentes  espbces  d'insectes. 


70  ON   PSYCHOPTERA   PALUDOSA. 

be  seen  through  it,  especially  the  fat-bodies,  which  are  conspicuous 
by  their  brilliant  white  colour  and  great  size. 

They  lie  on  the  mud,  covered  by  a  mere  film  of  water,  the 
respiratory  tail  floating  on  the  surface,  and  appear  almost  motion- 
less, their  only  means  of  movement,  indeed,  being  the  successive 
contraction  of  the  segments  of  the  body,  aided  by  the  slightly 
thickened  ring,  with  which  each  is  furnished.  That  they  pass 
much  of  their  life  buried  in  the  mud,  however,  appears  from  the 
fact  that  I  have  frequently  observed  its  exposed  surface  in  their 
haunts  to  be  pitted  with  holes,  and  that  whenever  this  is  the  case 
a  plentiful  supply  of  these  larvae  is  sure  to  be  obtained  by  digging 
up  a  handful  with  a  trowel.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  first 
occasion  on  which  I  found  the  pupa  was  as  early  as  March, 
whereas  Lyonet  states  that  with  him  they  underwent  their  trans- 
formation in  June.  I  have  myself  found  them  from  March  until 
as  late  even  as  July.  Probably  Lyonet's  observations  were  made 
upon  a  few  specimens  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  which  were  all 
exposed  to  one  uniform  condition. 

The  head  of  the  larva,  see  Plate  IX.,  Fig.  5,  is  hard  and  horny, 
in  striking  contrast  to  the  softness  of  the  rest  of  the  body.  Lyonet 
describes  it  as  furnished  with  a  pair  of  appendages  similar  (as  I 
gather  from  his  figures)  to  those  which  I  believe  to  be  antennse 
in  the  larva  of  Taiiypus  inaculatus.'^'^  I  have  not  been  able  to 
verify  this,  the  two  minute  projections  seen  in  my  drawing  of  the 
head  being,  I  think,  the  maxillary  palpi.  A  pair  of  minute  black 
spots  on  the  upper  surface,  as  in  Tanypus^  represents  the  eyes. 
The  most  interesting  portion  of  the  organisation  of  this  insect  is 
the  respiratory  system.  Like  all  other  dipterous  larvae  it  is 
furnished  with  a  pair  of  conspicuous  tracheal  trunks,  extending  the 
whole  length  of  the  body,  and  prolonged  in  this  instance  into  the 
filamentous  tail,  which  is  simply  the  terminal  segment  very  much 
attenuated  and  prolonged  (see  Fig.  2).  At  the  base  of  this 
segment  two  styliform  appendages  occur. 

The  trachse  in  this  part  of  their  course  are  simple  tubes, 
having  the  usual  spiral  fibre  in  their  walls,  and  much  convoluted 
near  the  base  of  the  tail.     I  do  not  think  these  tubes  have  any 

*  See  "Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society,"  June,  1882. 


ON  PSYCHOPTERA  PALUDOSA.  71 

spiracle  or  orifice  at  their  extremity,  and  it  is  probable  that 
respiration  is  effected  by  the  absorption  of  air  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  tail  as  it  floats  on  the  surface,  almost  in  contact  with 
the  atmosphere.  The  tail  is  capable,  according  to  Lyonet,  of 
being  retracted  to  a  certain  extent  within  the  body  of  the  larva, 
special  muscles  for  this  purpose  being  provided. 

The  continuation  of  these  tracheae  within  the  body  of  the 
larva  presents  some  special  characteristics,  which  appear  to  be 
connected  with  its  habit  of  passing  a  considerable  portion  of  its 
life  buried  in  the  mud.  With  the  exception  of  the  first  three  and 
last  three  segments,  the  tracheae  during  the  middle  part  of  their 
course  are  very  large  and  swollen  in  the  centre  of  each  segment, 
the  connections  between  the  enlarged  portions  being  compara-. 
tively  small.  Each  of  the  two  tubes  thus  assumes  the  appearance 
of  a  succession  of  bladder-like  cavities,  joined  to  each  other  by 
narrow  necks,  from  which  arise  the  smaller  branches,  which  are 
distributed  to  the  various  organs  (see  Fig.  6).  Furthermore,  a  sec- 
tion across  one  of  these  cavities  does  not  show  a  circular  form,  as 
is  usually  the  case  with  the  tracheae  of  insects,  but  one  more  or 
less  resembling  that  shown  in  Fig.  7,  where  it  will  be  seen,  that  while 
the  lower  surface  of  the  somewhat  flattened  trachea  is  entire,  its 
upper  surface  is  marked  with  two  deep  longitudinal  furrows,  seen 
in  section  at  a. a.  The  spiral  fibre,  elsewhere  very  marked,  strong, 
and  of  a  deep  colour,  thins  out  as  it  passes  over  these  furrows  (see 
Fig.  8),  some  of  the  coils  disappearing  altogether,  and  becomes  again 
specially  thick  and  strong  as  it  passes  round  the  ends  of  its  course, 
where  it  forms  the  sides  of  the  flattened  tube. 

The  elasticity  of  these  strong  portions  of  the  coil,  when  the 
tracheae  are  in  a  flaccid  condition,  presses  the  central  portion  of 
the  upper  surface  against  the  lower,  the  walls  yielding  along  the 
course  of  the  furrows,  where  the  resisting  fibre  is  almost  wanting, 
and  the  capacity  of  the  tube  is  thus  very  much  diminished,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7.  When,  how^ever,  the  tracheae  are  filled  with  air, 
the  thickened  ends  of  the  coil  yield  to  the  expansive  pressure,  the 
section  of  the  tube  becomes  almost  circular,  and  its  capacity  is 
enormously  increased.  This  arrangement  is  evidently  adapted  to 
admit  of  great  variations  in  the  amount  of  air  contained  in  the 
tracheae,  a  large  quantity  being  probably  required  when  the  insect 


72  ON  PSYCHOPTEEA  PALUDOSA. 

lies  deep  in  the  mud,  while  a  much  smaller  amount  suffices  when 
lying  on  the  surface  in  very  shallow  v/ater. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  follow  out  in  its  entirety  the  alimentary 
system,  but  can  furnish  a  few  facts  concerning  it.  The  proventri- 
culus'^  is  bell-shaped  (see  Fig.  9),  the  oesophagus  being  continued 
down  into  its  cavity  to  form  the  clapper,  and  reflected  back  again 
over  itself  to  form  the  roof.  This  is  exactly  similar  to  what  occurs 
in  the  larva  of  the  Crane  Fly.f  The  mouth  of  the  bell  is  sur- 
rounded by  eight  caeca,  from  which  arise  occasional  bud-like  pro- 
jections (see  Fig.  10). 

The  joroventriculus  is  succeeded  by  the  ventriculus,  or  stomach, 
which  is  straight  and  of  considerable  length,  tapering  down 
gradually  into  the  intestine.  In  this  may  be  distinguished  two 
portions,  corresponding  in  relative  size  to  the  small  and  large  intes- 
tines of  vertebrate  animals.  A  similar  distinction  occurs  in  many 
insects,  notably  in  the  Blow  Fly,|  and  also  in  the  larva  of  the 
Crane  Fly,§  where  the  analogy  obtains  even  more  strongly,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  a  large  anteriorly  directed  process  of  the  gut, 
corresponding  apparently  to  the  caecum  of  vertebrates.  In 
Fsychoptera,  however,  no  caecum  is  developed,  but  the  intestine 
is  coiled  once  upon  itself  at  this  portion  of  its  course,  and  thence 
proceeds  straight  to  the  anus.  Viewed  in  relation  to  their  embry- 
onic origin,  this  portion  of  the  intestine,  including  the  proventri- 
culus  and  stomach,  may  be  called  the  mid-gut ;  the  large  and 
small  intestines  constituting  the  hind-gut.  I  have  not  been  able 
to  trace  the  course  of  the  biliary  tubes,  or  malphigian  vessels,  as 
they  are  variously  called,  but  have  observed  through  the  transpar- 
ent skin  a  mass  of  coiled  vessels  of  a  deep  reddish-brown  colour, 
which  are  probably  the  organs  in  question.  Lyonet  appears  also 
to  have  noticed  this. 

The  fat-bodies  of  these  larvae  are  very  conspicuous,  both  in  the 
living  insects  and  in  dissected,  spirit-preserved  specimens.     They 

*  Compare  larva  of  Tanypus  maculatus.—"  Postal  Alicroscopical  Journal," 

June,  1882. 
Also  Maggot  of  Blow -Fly,  same  Journal,  March,  1S83. 

f  See  my  article  on  the  Larva  of  the  Crane  Fly  in  "  Science  Gossip,"  Jan.,  1875. 

X  See  Lowne's  "Anatomy  of  the  Blow  Fly,"  p.  57. 

§  See  "  Science  Gossip,"  Jan.,  1875. 


ON  PSYCHOPTERA  PALUDOSA.  73 

consist  of  ribands  of  cellular  tissue  containing  fat-globules,  which, 
from  their  great  number  and  minute  size,  refract  the  light  strongly. 
This  tissue  is  that  in  which  the  material  which  is  partly  used  up  in 
the  pupa  stage  is  deposited,  and  in  consequence  not  much  of  it  is 
found  in  the  perfect  insect. 

The  transformations  of  this  insect  resemble  strongly  those  of 
the  Crane-Fly.  Before  the  conclusion  of  its  larval  life,  the  growing 
limbs  of  the  pupa  may  be  seen  beneath  the  larval  integument  of  the 
thoracic  segments,  as  roughly  indicated  in  Fig.  ii.  The  differences 
between  the  mode  of  development  of  the  Crane  Fly  and  the  Blow 
Fly  have  been  already  described  by  me  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
Quekett  Microscopical  Society,'''  and  the  remarks  therein  applied 
to  the  Crane  Fly  will  be  equally  applicable  to  this  insect.  Unlike 
the  coarctate  pupa  of  the  Blow  Fly,  that  of  this  insect  sheds  its 
larval  skin  and  has  its  limbs  exposed,  as  seen  in  Figs.  3  and  1 2,  and 
this  seems  to  be  connected  with  a  more  gradual  and  less  radical 
process  of  internal  change.  The  larval  tissues  do  not  undergo  the 
total  degeneration  and  reconstruction  that  they  appear  to  do  in 
the  Blow  Fly,  and  the  pupa  retains  a  small  amount  of  voluntary 
motion. 

In  the  pupa,  as  well  as  in  the  larva,  the  most  curious  part  of 
the  structure  of  this  insect  is  its  respiratory  organs.  Lyonet  states  ■ 
that  the  respiratory  trunks  of  the  body  and  their  continuations  into 
the  tail  are  left  behind  in  the  larval  skin  ;  and  he  goes  on  to 
express  great  surprise  that  the  respiratory  tail  of  the  larva  changes 
its  place  in  the  pupa,  and  instead  of  being  found,  as  heretofore,  a 
continuation  of  the  abdomen,  takes  a  new  departure  from  the 
thorax  of  the  insect,  immediately  behind  the  head.  This  arises 
from  a  misapprehension  due  probably  to  imperfect  optical  appli- 
ances. His  explanation  of  this  subject  is  almost  amusing,  did  we 
not  recollect  the  disadvantages  under  which  he  laboured,  as 
compared  with  the  facilities  of  modern  microscopic  research.  I 
will  give  it  in  his  own  words.  He  says,  "  Quoique  cette  queue 
dans  I'etat  de  ver  soit  plus  grosse  et  bien  de  la  moitie  moins 
longue  que  dans  I'etat  de  nymphe,  on  ne  saurait  pourtant  douter 
que  Tune  et  I'autre  ne  soient  le  meme  conduit  de  la  respiration  et 

*  See  "Journal  of  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club,"  Jan.,  1876. 


74  ON  PSYCHOPTERA  PALUDOSA. 

que  la  difference  de  leur  longueur  et  de  leur  emplacement  ne 
proviennent  que  de  ce  que,  dans  I'etat  de  ver,  ce  canal  traversait 
sous  la  peau  de  I'insecte,  la  longueur  de  son  corps,  pour  aller 
s'inserrer  dans  ce  qui  devoit  devenir  le  haut  du  corselet  de  la 
nymphe  ;  et  qu'apres  avoir  quitte  la  peau  de  ver  pour  revetir  la 
forme  de  nymphe,  cette  partie  du  canal  de  la  respiration  que  la 
peau  du  ver  couvrait  s'offrant  a  decouvert,  fait  paraitre,  par  la  ce 
canal  d'autant  plus  longue  et  attache  au  corselet.  La  reunion  des 
deux  files  de  vaisseaux  bruns  qui  vont  sous  la  peau  du  ver  de  la 
queue  jusque  pres  de  la  tete  et  s'abouchent  a  cet  endroit  I'un  avec 
I'autre,  et  qui  dans  cet  etat  ne  paroissent  etre  que  ce  meme  canal 
de  la  respiration  continue  semble  confirmer  cette  ide'e,  quoique 
alors  on  ne  convolve  pas  aise'ment  par  quelle  mechanisme  deux 
vaisseaux,  auparavant  separes  se  sont  re'unis  pour  n'en  former 
ensuite  plus  qu'un,  ou  se  sont  joints  sous  une  meme  enveloppe." 

The  whole  of  this  pother  arose  from  the  fact  that  Lyonet  did 
not  perceive  that  the  respiratory  filament  of  the  pupa  was  not  a 
single  organ,  but  that  it  was  one  of  a  pair,  of  which  one  only  is 
developed,  the  other  remaining  rudimentary,  see  Fig.  12.  They  are 
the  superior  pro-thoracic  processes,  and  correspond  on  the  pro- 
thorax  to  the  wings  and  halteres  on  the  succeeding  two  segments. 
Their  development,  however,  ceases  with  the  pupa  stage,  being 
totally  suppressed  in  the  perfect  insect. 

They  are  both  rudimentary  in, the  pupa  of  the  Blow  Fly,  and  but 
poorly  represented  in  that  of  the  Crane  Fly.  In  this  insect  one 
only  is  fully  displayed,  but  in  the  pupa  of  the  Gnat  and  CoretJwa 
pliimicornis  they  are  both  seen  to  the  greatest  advantage.  In  all 
cases  where  they  are  developed  they  subserve  the  process  of  respira- 
tion. Lyonet  says  that  the  terminal  portion  of  the  filament  of  Fsy- 
choptera  is  flattened  and  twisted  into  a  helix,  and  that  the  insect  is 
capable  of  lengthening  it  by  unrolling  the  coil  to  suit  the  depth  at 
which  it  lies  in  the  water,  and  of  shortening  it  again  when  the 
necessity  has  passed  away.  I  have  not  observed  this,  nor  do  I 
quite  see  how  it  is  to  be  accomphshed ;  but  the  statement  may, 
nevertheless,  be  correct.  The  corkscrew  twist  I  indeed  recognise, 
but  not  the  knotted  thread  extending  along  the  wall  of  the  filament, 
by  which  Lyonet  further  states  its  extension  or  retraction  to  be 
effected. 


ON   PSYCHOPTERA   PALUDOSA.  75 

The  filament  (see  Fig.  13)  is  composed  of  an  exterior  integu- 
mental  wall  enclosing  a  trachea,  the  latter  being  a  continuation  of 
one  of  the  main  tracheal  trunks.  The  external  wall  is  marked  by 
a  thickened  spiral  ridge  projecting  internally,  and  having  a  corres- 
ponding external  spiral  depression.  This  wall  thins  out  towards 
the  extremity,  where  it  becomes  a  mere  film  of  membrane  surround- 
ing the  trachea,  see  Fig.  15,  m.  At  intervals  between  the  coils  there 
are  found  elevations  (see  Figs.  13,  14,  and  15),  consisting  of  a 
horny  ring,  over  which  the  integument  extends  in  a  thin  inflated 
bladder.  The  wall,  too,  of  the  enclosed  trachea  appears  here  to 
lose  its  spiral  form,  and  to  pass  as  a  delicate  internal  lining 
into  the  cavity  of  the  bladder,  to  which  it  is  closely  applied.  The 
total  thickness  of  both  linings  in  these  organs  is  so  small  as  pro- 
bably to  readily  admit  the  passage  of  air  through  them  into  the 
trachea,  either  by  direct  contact,  or  through  the  medium  of  the  sur- 
face water  in  which  the  filament  floats.  They  thus  form  closed 
stigmata,  admitting  the  air  through  their  tissues,  but  excluding  the 
water  ;  a  modification  of  the  closed  tracheal  system  peculiar  to  all 
exclusively  aquatic  insects,  another  form  of  w^hich  exists  in  the 
tracheal  gills  of  the  EphenieridcB.  It  may  be  asked  why  these  organs 
are  found  in  the  respiratory  filament  of  the  pupa,  while  they  are 
absent  from  that  of  the  larva.  The  question,  I  think,  admits  of 
the  reply,  that  the  integument  of  the  former  is  much  denser,  at 
least  in  its  basal  portion,  than  that  of  the  latter,  hence  the  neces- 
sity for  specialised  portions  of  it  devoted  to  the  fulfilment  of  its 
function ;  hence,  also,  we  find  that  as  we  approach  its  extremity, 
where  the  external  wall  thins  out,  these  organs  almost  disappear, 
the  respiratory  process  being  carried  on  over  the  whole  surface  of 
this  portion  of  the  filament.  The  filament  is  terminated  by  a  pretty 
crown  of  incurved  horny  teeth,  like  the  peristome  of  a  moss,  see 
Fig.  16.  I  do  not  think  this  is  an  open  stigma  any  more  than  the 
bladder-like  organs  just  described,  but  that  it  is  also  closed  in  by  a 
delicate  film  of  membrane. 

The  spirals  of  the  external  wall  appear  to  be  broken  at  opposite 
points  of  their  course,  a  fine  of  these  interruptions  thus  occurring 
on  either  side  of  the  filament.  The  abortive  corresponding  fila- 
ment to  which  allusion  has  been  made  is  so  small  as  easily  to 
escape  detection  ;  it  differs  from  its  fellow,  not  only  in  point  of 


76  ON  PSYCHOPTERA  PALUDOSA. 

size,  but  also  in  the  absence  of  the  toothed  crown,  its  place  being 
taken  by  a  simple  infolding  of  the  external  wall  to  form  the 
extremity  of  the  trachea,  a  constriction  occurring  at  this  point  to 
prevent  the  access  of  water,  see  Fig.  1 7.  It  has  been  asserted  by 
Mr.  Lowne*  that  the  spiracles  of  insects,  together  with  the  tracheae, 
are  invaginated  lateral  appendages,  similar  to  the  wings  and  legs, 
developed  inwardly  instead  of  outwardly.  If  we  regard  the  pro- 
bable course  of  development  of  the  functions  of  the  body  in  the 
animal  kingdom  we  may  conclude  that,  as  the  function  of  respira- 
tion probably  preceded  even  that  of  locomotion,  as  being  the  more 
necessary  to  the  existence  of  a  living  being,  the  converse  of  this  is 
rather  the  case,  and  that  the  appendages,  at  least  the  superior  ones — 
namely,  the  wings,  halteres,  and  the  pro-thoracic  pupal  appendages 
in  question — are  externally  developed  respiratory  organs,  in  many 
cases  diverted  from  their  original  function  ;t  but  be  this  as  it  may, 
there  appears  to  be  a  striking  amount  of  similarity  and  of  con- 
tinuity in  the  coils  of  the  external  wall  of  the  filament  of  Fsychop- 
tera  to  the  finer  spirals  of  the  enclosed  trachea,  which  suggests 
that  the  whole  organ  is  a  trachea  pushed  outwards. 

I  must  conclude  with  Lyonet's  account  of  the  perfect  insect> 
see  Fig.  4.  He  says,:  "  Its  predominant  colour  is  black  ;  the  legs 
and  extremity  of  the  abdomen  are  the  colour  of  dead  leaves ;  the 
antennae  are  black,  and  composed  of  sixteen  knots,  furnished  with 
very  minute  hairs.  Every  joint  of  the  legs  is  marked  with  a  black 
spot.  Its  most  notable  peculiarities  are,  however,  first,  the  form  of 
its  body,  the  base  of  the  abdomen  being  very  slender,  and  this  is 
followed  by  three  swollen  rings,  the  last  of  which  ends  in  a 
point;  and  secondly,  the  painting  of  the  wings,  the  nervures  of 
which  are  not  only  very  black,  but  are  adorned  with  numerous 
spots  of  the  same  colour,  giving  it  a  very  ornate  appearance." 


*  II 


Anatomy  of  the  Blow  Fly,"  p.  3,  note. 


t  In  this  way  we  should  view  the  incipient  wings  of  the  Ephemera  larva  as 
modified  tracheal  gills,  and  not  both  these  organs  as  differentiations  from  originally 
indifferent  appendages. 


ON   PSYCHOPTEBA  PALUDOSA.  77 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  IX. 


)) 


)j 


35 


J) 
3J 


)) 


Fig.    1. — Larva  of  Psychoptera  paludosa,  slightly  magnified  (Lyonet). 
The  inflated  tracheae  extend  from  A.  to  B. 

2. — Respiratory  tail  of  larva,  more  highly  magnified.  B.  C. ,  pen- 
ultimate segments;  1).  I).,  styliform  appendages;  E.^ 
convoluted  tracheae  ;  F.  F.,  muscles  (Lyonet). 

3. — Pupa,  slightly  magnified,  showing  the  respiratory  filament 
arising  from  the  thorax,  and  the  folded  wings  and  legs 
(Lyonet). 

4. — The  perfect  insect,  natural  size  (Lyonet). 

5.  —Head  of  the  larva,  from  beneath,  mx. ,  maxillae  ;  mx}). , 
maxillary  palpi  ;  Ir. ,  labrum. 

,,     6. — Portion  of  one  of  the  main  tracheae,  showing  two  segmental 
swellincfs, 

7. — Section  of  ditto,  across  x  x.     a.  a.,  longitudinal  furrows. 

8. — A  few  of  the  spiral  fibres  of  tracheae,  showing  the  thinning- 
out  of  the  fibres  at  a.  a.,  and  the  thickened  sides  of  the  coil. 

9. — Portion  of  the  alimentary  canal,  extending  from  the  proven- 
triculus  to  the  anus.  2^-5  ^^^^  proventriculus  ;  c,  its  Ci«ca  ; 
s.,  the  stomach;  si.,  the  small  intestine;  IL,  large  intes- 
tine, or  colon. 

9a. — Section  of  proventriculus,  showing  intus-susception  of  oeso- 
phagus. 

10. — Caeca  of  proventriculus. 

11. — Limbs  of  pupa,  seen  through  thoracic  integument  of  larva. 
I.  I.  I. ,  legs  ;  IV.  w. ,  wings. 

12. — Head  and  thorax  of  pupa,  seen  from  the  side.  /. ,  base  of 
respiratory  filament  ;  / ,  its  aborted  fellow  ;  a. ,  antennae  ; 
lb.,  labium;  (p.,  labial  palp;  I.  I.,  legs;  tv.,  wing;  /i. , 
haltere. 

13. — Central  portion  of  respiratory  filament,  with  bladder-like 
elevations. 

13a. — Portion  near  the  extremity. 

14. — One  of  the  elevations  from  the  central  portion  of  the  fila- 
ment, side  view,  v.,  horny  ring;  c.  c,  external  coils; 
t.,  trachea. 

15. — Ditto  from  terminal  portion,  m.,  membranous  continuation 
of  external  wall ;  f. ,  fibres  of  trachea. 

16. — Terminal  toothed  crown  of  filament.  m.,  membranous 
external  wall. 

17. — Aborted  filament,  showing  at  x  the  constricted  extremity  of 
the  trachea. 


)3 


5) 


3) 


[78] 

^be  jforantinifera  of  Galwa^* 

By  F.  p.  Balkwill  and  F.  W.  Millett,  F.R.M.S. 

Plates  i,  2,  3,  4. 


SECOND    PART. 


ENTOSOLENIAN   LIGEN^. 


Obsolete  in  classification,  but  convenient  for  arrangement ; 
round  in  section. 

Lagena  globosa. — Smooth,  pyriform,  or  globular,  with  pro- 
jecting nose,  opening  by  radiating  pores ;  lissurine,  with  fine  pores 
arranged  within  a  slit,  or  having  a  circular  aperture ;  fi-equent. 

In  this  and  some  other  Lage?t(E,  a  vestibule  is  formed  by  a  per- 
forated diaphragm,  roofing  the  funnel-mouthed  entosolenian  tube. 

Lagena  aspera  (PI.  II.,  Fig.  i). — Oval,  with  short,  cylindrical 
tube ;  shell  tuberculated ;  tubercles  sometimes  formed  of  lines 
and  dots  as  if  from  imperfectly-developed  ribs;  also,  one  specimen, 
ectosolenian,  pyriform,  with  long  neck. 

Lagena  caudata. — Oblong,  ovate,  truncate,  emarginate,  or 
having  a  produced  tube  more  or  less  bent.  This  "  cauda  "  is,  in 
fact,  the  entosolenian  tube  produced,  and  reminds  one  of  the 
articulated  peduncle  of  a  vegetable  marrow,  it  is  so  dissimilar  to 
anything  else  common  in  the  genus  as  to  be  characteristic,  and 
when  once  the  species  is  recognised,  it  can  scarcely  be  mistaken 
even  if  no  "cauda  "  be  present.  The  striae  are  so  fine  as  to  give 
a  milky  appearance  under  the  i-in.  and  usually  require  the  J-in, 
object-glass  to  resolve  them. 

Lagena  Williamsoni. — Pyriform ;  ribs,  about  sixteen,  start- 
ing from  initial  small  circle  at  posterior  broad  end.  Near  the  apex 
they  unite  and  reticulate  in  small  hexagons  to  the  nipple-shaped 
aperture.  In  transverse  section  this  resembles  Z.  sulcata;  circular 
in  outline,  the  sharp  ribs  being  joined  by  semi-circular  grooves ; 
common. 

Two  Lagenas  in  this  material  require  notice  :  one  elongate  or 
narrowly  pyriform,  with  few  fine  ribs,  like  Z.  striata  punctata,  but 
without  the  punctures  of  that  well-marked  species ;  the  other 
nearly  globular,  like  Z.  sulcata,  but  with  or  without  a  very  short 
ectosolenian  tube,  the  ribs  being  continued  up  to  the  very  minute 
circular  aperture.     Though  not  "  common/'  too  many  specimens 


THE  FORAMINIFERA  OF  GALWAY.  79 

of  this  latter  sort  occurred  to  allow  the  idea  that  they  were  L. 
sulcata,  with  the  tube  broken  off,  besides  being  different  in  shape, 
and  they  are  not  found  in  many  localities  where  Z.  sulcata  is  plen- 
tiful. The  former  may  be  considered  a  variety  of  L.  striata  punc- 
tata, from  its  being  so  much  more  like  that  than  any  other  species. 

Lagena  squamosa. — Pyriform  or  ovate,  with  various  reticula- 
tions, neither  hexagonal  nor  with  uniform  height  of  surface.  We 
have  found  IMontagu's  form,  in  which  the  ribs  are  in  half  circles, 
touching  each  other,  to  form  a  ring  round  the  shell,  each  side  of 
the  curve  springing  from  the  centre  of  that  below  it,  so  as  to  form 
a  diagonal  pattern.  More  frequently  the  semi-circles  are  produced 
into  croquet-hoops  and  follow  each  other  in  line,  decreasing  in  size 
from  the  broadest  part  of  the  shell  to  about  one-third  or  a  quarter 
from  the  apex,  the  convexity  being  always  towards  the  aperture. 
Looking  vertically  at  it  as  it  stands,  mouth  up,  sixteen  radii 
appear,  connected  by  decreasing  parallel  curves,  the  concave  side 
outwards,  so  that  the  circular  outline,  made  up  of  sixteen  concavi- 
ties, resembles  that  of  Z.  Williamsoni  and  Z.  sulcata.  In  another 
form  the  ribs  resemble  the  veining  of  endogenous  leaves,  longitu- 
dinal costae  connected  by  smaller  transverse  riblets  ;  in  others,  the 
reticulations  are  diagonal. 

Lagena  hexagona. — Pyriform,  reticulations  hexagonal,  ribs 
thin,  pits  deep,  nearly  hemispherical,  axis  of  hexagons  in  the 
meridional  line,  usually  a  nipple-like,  very  short  neck  ;  an  ovate 
form,  with  or  without  this  neck,  and  shallower  areolae,  has  the 
meridional  line  of  hexagons  connected  by  their  sides  instead  of 
their  angles. 

Lagena  hexagona  (variety,  squamosa,  Will.)  has  broader 
margins — which  are  not  parallel  in  thickness — of  uniform  height, 
dark  when  seen  against  a  black  background,  in  striking  contrast  to 
the  frosted  areolae,  which  are  irregularly  three  to  six  sided,  some 
being  two  or  three  times  as  long  as  broad.  These  pits  are  not  so 
sunk  as  in  Z.  hexagona,  and  look  as  if  dug  out  by  a  round-ended 
trowel ;  the  nipple-like  neck  usually  wanting. 

Oval,  Elliptical,  Trigonous,  or  Triquetrous  in  Section 
— i.e.,  having  two  or  three  more  or  less  flattened  sides,  or  winged. 

We  have  now  to  discuss  the  trigonal  forms  of  the  compressed 
Lageiice,  which  occur  in  this  gathering  in  an  abundance  and  a 
variety  for  which  there  is  no  parallel.  Hitherto,  it  has  been  the 
custom  to  give  a  distinctive  name  to  each  of  these  abnormal  forms 
without  regard  to  the  name  of  the  species  from  which  it  is  derived, 
but  then  the  number  of  varieties  known  was  very  small.  Now,  we 
have  trigonal  forms  of  nearly  all  the  compressed  Lagence,  and  al- 
though we  cannot  take  it  upon  ourselves  to  alter  a  well-established 


80  THE  FORAMINIFERA 

custom,  we  give  under  protest  names  to  the  new  trigonal  forms  in 
the  beUef  that  by  this  redudio  ad  absitrdum  the  older  names  may 
be  swept  away,  and  the  forms  in  future  spoken  of  as  merely 
'^  trigonal  growths  "  of  each  particular  species. 

As  if  to  emphasise  our  difficulty,  specimens  have  turned  up  of 
L.  Orbignyana  and  L.  dathrata,  possessing  four  keels  (PI.  IV., 
Figs.  2  and  3).  These  require  distinctive  appeUations,  so  we 
must  name  them  Z.  quad rlgo no- Orbignyana  and  L.  quadrigono- 
daiJu'ata  respectively. 

Probably,  the  trigonous  form  which  appears  to  be  common  to 
all  the  flat  Lagence  is  the  analogue  of  the  double  form  of  the 
round  ones.  In  this  case,  it  seems  likely  that  two  individuals,  or 
embryos,  have  coalesced  before  forming  the  shell,  and  by  their 
adhesion  together  one  of  their  four  sides  is  suppressed,  the  exter- 
nal surface  being  reduced  by  contact  so  as  to  develop  but  three 
more  or  less  perfect  sides.  In  all  cases,  as  in  the  double  forms, 
the  additional  portion  is  developed  upon  the  same  type  as  the 
rest,  thus  supporting  the  validity  of  their  specific  unity. 

We  have  bilocular  forms  of  Lagena,  of  the  following  species, 
viz.  : — sulcata,  davata,  IVilIiamsoni,  costata,  squamosa,  caudata, 
and  Lyellii.  Of  these,  Z.  sulcata  and  Z.  clavata  are  attached  late- 
rally, with  a  common  neck ;  Z.  caudata,  longitudinally,  with  diva- 
ricating apertures ;  Z.  Willianisoni,  L.  costata,  and  Z.  squamosa, 
anterio  posteriorly ;  and  finally,  Z.  Lyellii  is  similar  to  the  last, 
except  that  the  posterior  chamber  embraces  a  portion  of  the  ante- 
rior one  in  a  Nodosarine  manner. 

In  the  trigonous  forms,  the  third  rib  sometimes  stops  short  of 
the  base  of  the  shell,  and  consequently  does  not  join  the  others  at 
that  part.     It  seems  never  to  fail  in  reaching  the  apex. 

Lagena  lucida  (PL  II.,  Fig.  7). — Oval  in  section,  with  linear 
fissurine  mouth,  in  which  are  punctures  through  the  linear  dia- 
phragm. This  has  a  translucent  surface,  with  a  broad,  semi- 
opaque  horseshoe  band  on  each  side,  caused  by  minute  tubules  in 
the  shell-substance,  usually  broadly  ovate,  cuneate;  an  elliptical 
form,  with  an  acute  base,  is  named  Z,  acuta,  by  Brady. 

The  trigonal  form  of  Z.  lucida  has  been  known  as  oblonga. 
Lagena  trigono-oblonga  {lucida),  PL  III.,  Fig.  4. 

Lagena  l.^vigata  (PL  II.,  Fig.  6). — This  is  half  as  large 
again  as  Z.  lucida  usually  is,  has  not  the  peculiar  marking,  is 
rounder  in  section,  longer  and  more  uniform  in  shape,  ovate 
lanceolate  obtuse,  the  fissurine  aperture  is  as  in  Z.  lucida.  This 
form  is  commoner  in  50  fathoms,  and  seems  to  represent  Z.  lucida 
at  that  depth,  as  Z.  costata  similarly  supplants  Z.  Williamsoni, 
which  it  also  exceeds  about  as  much  in  size. 


OF   GALWAY.  81 

Lagena  trigono-l^vigata  (pi.  III.,  Fig.  6). — The  aperture 
is  formed  by  tri-radiating  slits. 

Lagena  faba  (PL  II.,  Fig.  lo). — Is  oval  in  equatorial  section. 
Seen  on  edge  the  outline  would  be  cordate  lanceolate,  with 
everted  lips.  These  lips  enclose  an  elliptical,  funnel-shaped  dia- 
phragm ;  surface  rough,  like  that  of  an  orange.  •  Outline  broadly 
circular  truncate,  the  elliptical  mouth  forming  a  straight  edge  when 
viewed  laterally ;  two  narrow,  curved,  opaque  white  bands,  nearly 
joining  at  the  bottom,  extend  three-quarters  up  each  side  within 
the  margin  of  each  face  of  shell ;  internal  tube  central  and  free, 
as  in  Z.  hicida.     Very  common  ! 

Seguenza,  in  his  "Foraminiferi  Monotalamici"  (PL  I.,  Fig.  60), 
figures  a  form  similar  in  outline,  but  describes  it  (page  60)  as 
having  an  acute  keel ;  he  names  it  Fissuriiia  aperta. 

Lagena  quadrata  (PL  II.,  Fig.  8). — Oblong,  in  outline  more 
or  less  quadrangular ;  it  varies  in  proportions  of  length,  breadth, 
and  thickness. 

Lagena  quadrata,  variety,  Semi-Alata  (PL  IL,  Fig.  9). — 
Has  a  simple  wing,  connecting  the  neck  with  the  shell. 

This  pretty  variety  of  L.  quadrata^  figured  by  Williamson, 
seems  worthy  of  a  distinctive  name. 

Lagena  Marginata  (PL  III.,  Fig.  2). — Transparent,  smooth, 
with  but  one  keeL  In  this,  L.  Orbignyana  and  allied  forms,  the 
tube  adheres  to  one  of  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  shelL  The  mouth 
of  the  tube  opens  mostly  on  the  opposite  face  in  this  species  ; 
contour  nearly  circular. 

Lagena  trigono-elliptica  (PL  III.,  Fig.  8). — This  specimen 
has  one  keel  at  each  angle;  the  tube  is  central  and  very  short.  In 
shape  this  is  elliptical,  and  in  cross  section  triquetrous. 

A  similar  form  is  described  by  Seguenza,  under  the  name  of 
Trigonulina  globosa,  but  this  specific  name  is  occupied,  as  is  also 
the  more  appropriate  one  of  trigono  marginata. 

Lagena  pedunculata  (PL  III.,  Fig.  3). — x\n  interesting 
variety  of  marginata.,  figured  by  Seguenza,  loc.  cit.,  PL  2,  Fig.  4, 
page  60. 

Lagena  Orbignyana  (PL  III.,  Fig.  i). — Has  three  keels,  the 
central  one  broadest ;  surface  smooth. 

Lagena  trigono-Orbignyana  (PL  III.,  Fig.  10). 

Lagena  pulchella  (PL  II.,  Fig.  13). — A  variety  of  L.  Orbig- 
nyana.,  the  surface  marked  with  branching  costse. 

Lagena  trigono-pulchella  (PL  III.,  Fig.  11). — Also  found 
by  Balkwill  and  Wright  in  Dublin  waters,  and  recorded  as  L. 
pulchella. 


82  .  THE   FORAMINIFERA 

Lagena  clathrata  (PI.  II.,  Fig.  14). — A  variety  of  Z.  Orbig- 
nya?ia ;  the  surface  is  marked  by  parallel  striae.* 

We  have  also  found  a  few  specimens  which  are  intermediate 
between  Z.  clathrata  and  Z.  castrensis. 

Lagena  lagenoides  (PI.  II.,  Fig.  2). —  Has  the  wing  tubulated. 
The  tubules  are  in  shape  like  a  rose-prickle,  springing  from  a 
broad  base.  Each  surface  of  the  shell  is  like  an  oval  or  elliptical 
shield,  which  overlaps  the  base  of  the  tubes.  The  minute  circular 
aperture  is  in  the  centre  of  a  narrowly-oval  mouth,  with  beauti- 
fully convex,  revolute  contour.  Our  specimens  have  short  necks, 
and  differ  from  Z.  ornata  in  not  having  the  wing  cellulated. 

Lagena  lagenoides,  variety  tenuistriata  (PI.  II.,  Fig.  12); 
Brady,  MSS. — The  neck  is  more  produced  than  in  Z.  ornata,  and 
form  "  oblongo  ovate."  The  variety  tenuistriata  is  a  Challenger 
form,  finely  striate;  very  rare;t  6  specimens, 

Lagena  lagenoides,  variety  trigono-tenuistriata  (PI.  III., 
Fig.  12),  is  the  trigonal  form  of  the  last  variety.  It  bears  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  that  of  Lage?ia  ornata  (Will.),  but  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  striae. 

Lagena  bicarinata  (PI.  II.,  Fig.  4)  J. — This  oval  form  is  like 
the  F.  RizzcB  of  Seguenza.  It  has  a  median  depression  between 
two  keels  ;  aperture  small,  circular  in  the  centre  of  a  rhomboid 
mouth.  This  species  is  allied  to  Z.  ornata,  to  which  its  edge- 
aspect,  as  well  as  its  shape  and  mouth,  approach  in  resemblance. 

Seguenza's  Fissurina  niarginata,  loc.  cit.,  PI.  2,  Figs.  27,  28, 
page  66,  is  a  compressed  form,  with  a  thick  keel  slightly  canalicu- 
late. It  approaches  the  bicarinate  form,  but  we  prefer  the  name 
given  by  Terquem  §  to  a  more  characteristic  example. 

Lagena  trigono-bicarinata  (PI.  III.,  Fig.  9). — Very  rare ;  6 
or  8  specimens. 

Lagena  flmbriata  (PI.  II.,  Fig.  5);  Brady,  1881,  Quart. 
Journ.  Mic.  Sci.,  Vol.  XXL,  N.S.,  p.  61. — New  to  British  waters; 
very  rare  ;  three  specimens. 

In  coanrmation  of  the  views  of  Parker  and   Brady,  that  punc- 

*  H.  B.  Brady  says: — "The  tropical  specimens  only  differ  in  having  fewer 
stouter  costse." 

t  This  variety  has  been  found  elsewhere  on  British  coasts  ;  exceedingly  rare 
(J.  S.  Wright). 

J  Seguenza  speaks  of  his  Fissurina  Rizzce.  : — "Margin  white  and  opaque,  there- 
fore distinct  from  the  other  portion,  which  is  glassy  and  transparent "  ;  and  of 
Fissurina  apcra  : — "  Margin  white,  keel  acute."  N.B. — The  whiteness  of  margin 
in  these  two  species  points  to  the  liicida  type. 

§  Terquem,  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  Ser.  2,  Vol.  2,  1882,  p.  31, 
PI.  IX.,  Fig.  24. 


OF    GAL  WAY.  83 

tuation  of  surface  is  of  no  specific  value,  we  have  several  speci- 
mens of  Z.  hvvis^  L.faba,  and  L.  bicariiiata^  which  are  distinctly 
and  regularly  punctate.  Had  they  been  striate  instead  of  punc- 
tate, it  would  have  been  our  duty  to  have  given  them  distinctive 
names.  So  much  for  the  importance  attached  to  the  nature  of 
surface-ornamentation. 


OTHER    FORMS. 


The  NoDOSARiXE  Forms  in  this  gathering  are  few  in  number, 
and  present  but  little  variety. 

Ramulixa. — This  genus,  as  constituted  by  Professor  T.  Rupert 
Jones,  contained  the  so-called  Dentalma  acukata  of  d'Orbigny  and 
two  species,  R.  Icevis  and  R.  brachiata,  discovered  by  our  friend 
Joseph  Wright,  F.G.S.,  in  the  chalk  of  the  North  of  Ireland."^  To 
these  has  been  added  a  recent  species,  R.  globulifera^  from  the 
"Challenger"  dredgings,  by  H.  B.  Brady,  F.R.S.f  This  last 
author  expresses  surprise  that  such  a  true  De?italina  as  d'Orbigny's 
figure  of  D.  aciileata  appears  to  be,  should  be  associated  with  any 
Ramuline  form.  We  have  in  our  possession  a  slide  obtained  more 
than  twenty  years  ago  from  the  late  Professor  Tennant,  which  bears 
a  printed  label — "  Dentahna  aculeata  (d'Orb.),  Chalk-marl,  Kent." 
On  this  slide  are  four  specimens  of  a  subsegmented  branching  fora- 
minifer,  resembling  d'Orbigny's  species  in  having  the  surface  acule- 
ate, but  otherwise  bearing  the  Ramuline  characters  of  the  speci- 
mens discovered  by  Joseph  Wright.  We  mention  this  in  order  to 
show  that  the  error,  if  it  be  one,  is  of  long  standing. 

The  Gal  way  material  has  yielded  one  specimen  only  of  this 
genus,  Plate  IV.,  Fig.  7.  This  appears  to  approach  most  nearly  to 
the  R.  Icevis  of  the  Irish  chalk. 

It  is  perhaps  worthy  of  notice  that  many  of  the  Ranmlince,  in 
form  and  texture,  resemble  the  cervicorn  outgrowths  of  certain 
PolymorphifKB. 

LixGULiXA  CARixATA,  Plate  IV.,  Fig.  6.— Of  this  rare  species 
two  specimens  "have  occurred.  The  one  figured  has  an  entosole- 
nian  tube  occupying  the  full  length  of  the  last  formed  chamber.  In 
two  respects  they  differ  from  d'Orbigny's  definition  of  the  species, 
inasmuch  as  they  are  not  carinate,  and  the  primordial  chamber, 

*  Proceedings  of  Belfast  Nat.  Field  Club,  1873,  1874,  Ser.  2,  Vol.  2,  Part  i,  p.  88, 
PL  III.,  Figs.  18-20. 

t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,  1879,  Vol.  lo,  New  Ser.,  p.  272, 
PI.  VIII.,  Figs.  32,  33. 


84  THE  FORAMINIFERA 

instead  of  being  acuminate,  is  broadly  oval,  in  these  characters 
resembling  Williamson's  specimens  rather  than  those  of  d'Orbigny 
and  Soldani. 

Cristellaria  crepidula,  Plate  IV.,  Fig.  8. — In  the  literature 
of  the  foraminifera  no  genus  is  more  bewildering  than  Cristellaria. 
Continental  writers,  one  after  another,  have  heaped  up  species 
upon  species,  until  the  record  of  trivial  names  contains  many  hun- 
dreds, and  were  we  disposed  to  find  a  different  name  for  each  in- 
dividual of  this  species  that  we  have  discovered,  the  task  would  not 
be  a  difficult  one,  every  variety  of  form  being  represented,  from  the 
short  and  stout  to  the  long  and  thin  ;  the  chambers  of  some  are 
short  and  very  broad,  whilst  those  of  others  are  long  and  very 
narrow  ;  some  specimens  are  almost  straight,  whilst  others  are  bent 
like  a  fish-hook,  but  still  the  same  general  characters  prevail 
throughout,  and  proclaim  them  to  be  all  of  the  same  species.  C. 
rofulata,  on  the  other  hand,  is  remarkably  uniform  in  its  plan  of 
growth. 

Polymorphina. — This  genus  is  well  represented,  and  one  of 
the  species,  P.  complanata,  d'Orb.,  Plate  IV.,  Fig.  9,  is  new  to 
Great  Britain,  and  interesting  as  being  the  type  of  the  Polymor- 
phincB  which  have  the  chambers  arranged  in  a  Textularian  manner. 
P.  inyristiformis,  Will.,  PI.  IV,  Fig.  10,  is  a  handsome  species, 
having  on  a  surface  like  finely  ground  glass,  several  perfectly  trans- 
parent tear-like  ribs. 

The  other  species  mentioned  in  the  Catalogue  being  well- 
known,  require  no  particular  comment. 

Globigerina  inflata,  d'Orb.,  Plate  IV.,  Fig.  11. — The 
numerous  specimens  of  this  species  are  neat  and  compact  in  form, 
and  more  Rotaline  than  those  figured  by  d'Orbigny*  or  by 
Parker  and  Jones.t  They  present  so  little  variation  that  they 
misrht  almost  have  been  made  in  the  same  mould. 

Textularid^. — Although  but  five  and  twenty  years  have 
passed  since  the  pubUcation  of  Williamson's  excellent  monograph, 
yet  have  such  changes  been  made  in  the  knowledge  and  nomen- 
clature of  the  Bridsh  recent  Foraminifera,  that  of  the  six  varieties  of 
Textularla  therein  enumerated,  the  names  of  two  only  remain  un- 
changed, and  whilst  Williamson  then  stated  that  he  had  not  seen 
any  species  of  Bolivtna,  there  are  now  five  species  recognised  as 
British. 

Of  Textularla  proper  we  have  from  Galway  three,  or  perhaps 
four  species.  The  most  abundant  is  T.  gramen,  d'Orb.,  which  here 
is  arenaceous.   Many  of  the  specimens  being  broader  than  they  are 

*  Foraminiferes  des  lies  Canaries,  1839,  PL  II.,  Figs.  7-9. 
f  Foraminifera  from  North  Atlantic  and  Arctic  Oceans,  1864,  PI.  XIV.,  Figs.  16,  17. 


OF  GALWAT.  85 

long,  should  perhaps  be  assigned  to  T.  ahhreviata^  d'Orb.,  which  is 
distinguished  only  by  its  shortness  in  comparison  with  its  breadth.* 
T.  variabilis  and  T,  difformis  are  well  described  by  Williamson, 
and  need  no  comment. 

Bolivma. — In  this  genus  we  must  place  the  Textularia  Icevigata 
of  Williamson,  as  it  possesses  the  true  Bulimine  aperture.  Reuss  has 
described  a  species  which  appears  to  be  identical,  under  the  name 
of  Bolivma  textilarioides^\  but  Williamson's  specific  name  having 
precedence,  must  stand. 

Amongst  the  Rotalines  we  have  the  species  new  to  Britain, 
Pulvinulina  scittila,  Brady,  Plate  IV.,  Fig.  12. — One  specimen 
only  has  been  found,  and  this  has  been  identified  by  H.  B.  Brady, 
F.R.S.  We  quote  his  description  of  the  species.  |  "A  variety  of 
Pulvinulijia  ca?iarie?ists,  difi"ering  from  the  typical  form  in  its 
relatively  small  size  and  compact  habit  of  growth.  The  margin  is 
rounded  instead  of  sharp  and  the  peripheral  ends  of  the  chambers 
are  only  slightly  convex  instead  of  standing  out  prominently, 
as  in  P.  ca7iariensis.  Notwithstanding  its  small  minute  dimensions, 
it  generally  attracts  attention  by  its  glistening  white  appearance." 

NoNiONiNA. — Is  represented  by  an  immense  number  of 
individuals.  Besides  the  species  enumerated  in  the  Catalogue, 
there  are  forms  closely  approaching,  if  not  identical  with, 
N.  Boueana,  D'Orb.,  and  N.  scapha^  F.  and  M.,  but  these  require 
further  study  before  their  exact  position  can  be  determined. 

We  cannot  conclude  without  expressing  our  obHgation  to  H. 
B.  Brady,  F.R.S.,  for  the  great  assistance  he  has  rendered  us  in 
determining  the  species  of  obscure  specimens,  and  in  advising  us 
generally  on  the  difiiculties  which  have  arisen  in  the  preparation 
of  this  article. 


CATALOGUE  OF  GALWAY  FORAMINIFERA. 


I. 


Cornuspira  involvens     ... 

Reuss     ... 

frequent. 

Biloculina  depressa 

D'Orb     ... 

rare. 

Miliolina  tricarinata 
„         oblonga 
„         Brongniartii    ... 

D'Orb.    ... 
Mont.     ... 
D'Orb.   ... 

very  rare, 
frequent, 
very  rare. 

*  Foraminiferes  fossiles  du  Bassin  Tertiaire  de  Vienne,  1846,  p.  249,  PI.  XV., 

Fig.  9-12. 

t  Norddeutschen  Hils  and  Gault,  1862,  p  81,  PI.  X.,  Fig.  i. 
X  Proceedings  Roy.  Soc,  Edinburgh,  1881-82,  p.  716. 

H 


86 


THE  FORAMINIFERA 


Miliolina  seminulum 

Linn 

frequent. 

subrotunda 

Mont.     . . . 

common. 

secans 

D'Orb.   ... 

common. 

bicornis 

W.  &  J.  ... 

rare. 

fusca 

Brady     ... 

rare. 

I. 

2.- 

—      ,, 

sclerotica 

Karrer    ... 

frequent. 

Auberiana 

D'Orb.  ... 

rare. 

I. 

3-- 

—      J. 

tenuis 

Czjzek   ... 

very  rare. 

Spiroloculina  planulata  . . . 

Lamk     . . . 

very  rare. 

I. 

6.- 

-Haplophragmium  glome- 

ratum 

Brady    ... 

very  rare. 

Haplophragmium   cana- 

riense 

D'Orb.  ... 

common. 

I. 

5-- 

-Haplophragmium  globige- 

riniforme 

P.  &  J.  ... 

very  rare. 

Ammodiscus  gordiahs    ... 

J.  &  P.  ... 

frequent. 

I. 

4-- 

- 

„          Shoneanus . . . 

Siddall  ... 

very  rare. 

Trochammina  squamata . . 

P.  &  J.  ... 

rare. 

I. 

7-- 

-Trochammina,  ochracea     Will.  (sp.)... 

rare. 

„              inflata 

Mont.     ... 

rare. 

„              macrescens 

Brady    ... 

very  rare. 

I. 

8.- 

- 

„              plicata    ...  Terq.(sp.)... 

rare. 

Lagena  sulcata            '    ... 

W.  &J.... 

common. 

II. 

3-- 

~      jj 

curvihneata 

B.  &  W... 

very  rare,  i  sp, 

5J 

semistriata 

Will.       ... 

frequent. 

)> 

striata 

D'Orb.   ... 

frequent. 

II. 

2.— 

5) 

Lyellii 

Seg.       ... 

very  rare. 

}} 

clavata 

D'Orb.  ... 

frequent. 

>> 

gracillima 

Seg. 

rare. 

J) 

globosa 

Mont.     ... 

frequent. 

II. 

I.— 

~            J) 

aspera 

Reuss    . . . 

very  rare. 

I. 

9-- 

~           5) 

caudata 

DOrb.  ... 

rare. 

J> 

Williamson! 

Alcock  ..,. 

common. 

» 

squamosa 

Mont.    ... 

common. 

J) 

hexagona 

Will.      ... 

common. 

I. 

10. 

J) 

i,        variety... 

...       ... 

frequent. 

11. 

7-- 

~            3) 

lucida 

Will.      . . . 

common. 

III. 

4&5 

J5 

trigono  lucida  (oblong 

a)    Seg.  ... 

rare. 

11. 

6.- 

~            3) 

laevigata 

Reuss.  ... 

rare. 

III. 

6.- 

~            }> 

„  trigono  laevigata 

.   B.  &M... 

very  rare. 

II. 

lO.- 

~            35 

faba 

B.  &M... 

common  ! 

III. 

7-- 

33 

,,     trigono  faba.. 

B.  &  M... 

very  rare. 

II. 

8.- 

~            33 

quadrata 

Will.      ... 

rare. 

11. 

9- 

~            33 

„     semi  alata... 

B.  &M... 

rare. 

OF  GALWAY. 

III. 

2.— 

-Lagena  marginata         ...     W.  &  I.   ... 

frequent. 

III. 

S-- 

)) 

„   trigone  elliptica  B.  &  M   ... 

very  rare, 

IV. 

2.— 

5> 

„    quadrigono- 

Orbignyana      B.  &  M.    ... 

very  rare, 

III. 

3.- 

5) 

„   var.  pedunculata   Seg. 

very  rare 

III. 

I.— 

)) 

Orbignyana          ...     Brady     ... 

common. 

III. 

10.— 

)> 

trigone 
Marginata          

rare. 

II. 

13- 

)5 

pulchella               ...     Brady     ... 

frequent. 

III. 

2.— 

>5 

„  trigono-pulchella  B.&M.  ... 

rare. 

11. 

14. 

5J 

clathrata               ...     Brady     ... 

rare. 

)J 

„         variety.           

rare. 

IV. 

3- 

)> 

quadrigono-clathrata  B.  &  M. 

very  rare, 

11. 

II. — 

J) 

lagenoides            ...     Will. 

rare. 

II. 

12.— 

)J 

lagenoides,  var. 

87 


III.  12. 

11.  4. 

III.  9.- 

II.  5- 

IV.  6.- 


)j 


)5 


}> 


tenuistriata     Brady     . 
lagenoides,  var. 

trigono-tenuistriata    B.  &  M. 
bicarinata  ...  Terquem  . 

trigone   bicarinata     B.  &  M.  . 


5) 


IV.     8.— 


fimbriata 

-Lingulina  carinata 

Nodosaria  scalaris 
„         pyrula 

Dentalina  communis 
„         guttifera 

Cristellaria  rotulata 
„         crepidula 

Polymorphina  lactea 
gibba 
sequalis 


IV.   10.- 
IV.     9.- 


oblonga 
fusiformis  ... 
compressa  ... 
myristiformis 
complanata  !  * 


IV.   II.- 


Uvigerina  angulosa 

Spirillina  vivipara 

buUoi 
inflata 


Globigerina  buUoides 


)> 


Brady 

D'Orb. 

Bat  sell 
D'Orb. 

D'Orb. 
D'Orb. 

Lamk. 
F.  &  M. 

W.  &  J. 

D'Orb. 

D'Orb. 

Will. 

Roemer 

D'Orb. 

Will. 

D'Orb. 

'  Will. 

Ehren. 

D'Orb. 
D'Orb. 


rare,  6  sp. 


rare. 

very  rare, 
6  or  8  sp. 
very  rare,  3  sp. 

very  rare. 

frequent, 
very  rare. 

very  rare. 
very  rare. 

,  very  rare, 
rare. 

rare. 

frequent, 
frequent, 
rare. 

very  rare, 
frequent, 
rare, 
very  rare. 

frequent. 

very  rare. 

verv  common. 


frequent. 


*  New  to  Great  Britain. 


88 


THE  FOEAMINIFERA 


IV.    13. 


IV.     12.- 


Textularia  gramen 
„         variabilis 
„         difformis 

D'Orb.     ... 

Will. 
Will. 

frequent, 
very  rare, 
frequent. 

Bolivina  punctata 
„     plicata 
„     laevigata 
„     dilatata 

D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     ... 
Will.  sp.  ... 
Reuss 

common, 
common, 
frequent, 
frequent. 

Gaudryina  filiformis 

Berthelin  ... 

rare. 

Verneuilina  polystropha    ... 

Reuss 

very  rare. 

Bulimina  pupoides 
„         marginata 
55         aculeata 
55         ovata 
„         elegantissima 
„         subteres 

D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     ... 
Brady 

common. 

common. 

rare. 

frequent. 

frequent. 

very  rare. 

Virgulina  Schreibersii 

Czjzek 

frequent. 

Cassidulina  laevigata 

55             crassa             ... 
5,             oblonga 

D'Orb.      ... 
D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     ... 

frequent. 

rare. 

frequent. 

Discorbina  rosacea 
„         globularis 
5,         Parisiensis 
,5       '  Wrightii 
5,         orbicularis 

D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     . . . 
Brady 
Terquem... 

common, 
common, 
frequent, 
frequent, 
rare. 

„             variety 
5,         Bertheloti 

•  •  •                  •  •  • 

D'Orb.     ... 

common, 
very  rare. 

Planorbulina  Mediterran- 
ensis 

D'Orb.     ... 

common. 

Truncatulina  lobatula 

Walker    ... 

very  common 

Pulvinulina  auricula 
„           repanda 
„           canariensis     ... 
„           scitula 

F.  &  M.  ... 
D'Orb.     ... 
D'Orb.     ... 

Brady 

rare. 

very  rare, 
very  rare, 
very  rare. 

Tinoporus  lucidus 

Brady 

rare. 

Rotalia  Beccarii 
„     nitida 

Linn. 
Will. 

common, 
rare. 

Patellina  corrugata 

Will. 

frequent. 

Operculina  ammonoides   ... 

Gron. 

very  rare. 

Polystomella  crispa 

„            striato-punctata 

Linn. 

F.  &M.  ... 

very  common, 
common. 

OF  GALWAY. 


89 


IV. 


Nonionina  turgida 

depressula 
pauperata 
stelligera 

7. — Ramulina,  sp. 


» 


J) 


jj 


.     Will.        ...     frequent. 
.     W.  &  J.   ...  very  common. 
,  .Balkwill  &  Wright,  very  rare. 
.     D'Orb.     ...     very  rare. 

very  rare. 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATES. 


)> 


)» 


Plate    I. 

Fig.    1. — Cornuspira  involvens,  Reuss.   x  100. 

2. — Miliolina  sclerotica,  Karrer  (or  contorta,  d'Orb.),  x  45. 

3. — Miliolina  tenuis  (after  Czjzek),  x  95. 

The  Galway  examples  of  this  species  being  wanting  in  cha- 
racter, we  have  thought  it  best  to  give  copies  of  Czjzek's 
original  figures. 

4. — Ammodiscus  Shoneanus,  Siddell,  x  130. 

5. — Haplophragmium  globigeriniforme,  P.  and  J.,  x  100. 

6. — Haplophragmium  glomeratum,  Brady,  x  220. 

7. — Trochammina  ochracea.  Will,  (sp.),  x  180. 

8. — Trochammina  plicata,  Terquem  (sp.),  x  100. 

9.  — Lagena  caudata,  d'Orb. ,  x  80. 

10. — Lagena  hexagona,  ?  var. ,  x  110. 

11. — Lagena  quadrata,  ?  var. ,   x  110. 

We  figure  this  curious  little  hooded  variety,  as,  having  found 
two  specimens  exactly  similar,  it  may  prove  to  be  something 
more  than  an  accidental  variation. 


j> 


>j 


)j 


)j 


j> 


}> 


j> 


>j 


Plate   II. 

Fig.   1. — Lagena  aspera,  Reuss,  x  80. 

Lyellii,  Seguenza,  x  135. 
curvilineata,  Balkwill  and  Wright,  x  85. 
bicarinata,  Terquem,  x  100. 
fimbriata,  Brady,  x  95. 
Icevigata,  Reuss,  sp.,  x  115. 
lucida,  Williamson,    x  80. 
quadrata,  Williamson,    x   100. 
semi-alata,  nov.   x  125. 


2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6.—      „ 

7. 

8. 

9. 

90  THE  FORAIVIINIFERA  OF  GALWAY. 

Fig.  10. — Lagena  faba,  nov.   x  90. 

11. —      J,       lagenoideSj  Williamson,   x  170. 

12. —      ,,       lagenoides,  var.  tenuistriata,  Brady,  x  150. 

13. —      ,,       pulchella,  Brady,   x  100. 

14. —     ,,       clathrata,  Brady,  x  140. 


'5 


Plate    III. 

Fig.   1. — Lagena  Orbignyana,  Seguenza,  x  110. 
,,      2. —      ,,       marginata,  W.  and  J.,  x  125. 

3. —     ,,  ,,  var.,  pedunculata,  Seguenza,  x  110. 

4. —      ,,       trigonal  form  of  liicida,  x  110. 

5. —      ,,  ,,  ,,     ,,    lucida,  abnormal,  double  specimen, 

X    135. 
,,      6. —     ,,    •         ,,  ,,     ,,    Isevigata,  x  100. 

,,      7. —      ,,  ,)  J)     J 3    laba,   x  loO. 

,,      8. —      ,,  ,,  5,     ,,    marginata,  single  keel,  x  145. 

,,      9. —      ,,  ,,  5,     ,,    bicarinata,  x  120. 


5) 
J5 


10. —      ,,  ,,  }j     J)    Orbignyana,   x  125. 

11. —      ,,  ,,  55     J  J    pulchella,   x   125. 

12. —     ,j  ,,  j5     )j    tenuistriata,  x  200. 


Plate  IV. 

Fig.  1. — Lagena  trigono-marginata,  P.  and  J.  (arrested  growth),  x  150. 

,,  2. —      J,       quadrigono-Orbignyana,  nov.   x  160. 

,,  3. —      ,,       quadrigono-clathrata,  nov.   x  160. 

,,  4. —      ,,       Williamsoni,    Alcock,    var.,   approaching  L.  striato- 

punctata,  x    120. 

,,  5. —     ,,       clathrata,  Brady  (approaching  L.  castrensis),  x  110. 

,,  6. — Lingulina  carinata,  D'Orb.,   x  80. 

,,  7. — Ramulina,  sp.,  x  100. 

,,  8. — Cristellaria  crepidula,  F.  andM.,  x  90. 

,,  9. — Polymorphina  complanata,  D'Orb. ,  x  55. 

,,  10. — Polymorphina  myristiformis,  \y ill.,   x  110. 

,,  11. — Globigerina  inflata,  D'Orb.,  x  85. 

,,  12. — Pulvinulina  scitula,  Brady,  x  125. 

J,  13.  — Discorbina  orbicularis,  Terquem,  sp. 5  x  90. 


[91] 

©n  tbe  palpi  of  jftesb^Mater  /DMtes  as  m^5  to 
DtsttnoutsbittQ  Sub^jfamiUes* 

By  C.    F.    George,   M.R.C.S.,    Lon.,   etc. 

SECOND   PAPER. 


THE  Second  Family  of  the  Fresh- Water  Mites,  Weihermilben 
or  Hydrachnides,  is  divided  into  five  sub-famiUes,  viz. — 
I,  Lim7iesia;  2,  Hydrachna ;  3,  Hydryphantes ;  4,  Hydrodroina ; 
and,  5,  Eylais^  distinguished  by  having  four  eyes,  whilst  the  Hygro- 
batides  have  but  two.  If  the  following  figures  are  examined  and 
compared,  they  will  be  found  to  differ  from  each  other,  and  also 
from  the  figures  given  with  the  previous  paper,*  with  the  exception 
of  Limtiesia  (Fig.  i),  where  this  organ  resembles  very  closely  that 
of  Hygrobates  amongst  the  Flussmilben.  In  Fig.  2  the  joints  are 
very  wide  in  proportion  to  their  length,  and  the  movable  claw 
carried  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  last  joint  is  very  remarkable, 


more  so  than  I  have  been  able  to  demonstrate  in  the  figure.     In 
Hydrypha7ites  (Fig.  3)  the  organ  is  small  for  the  size  of  the  mite, 
and   carries    the  small  movable  claw  beneath  the  last  joint,  the 
upper  portion  of  which  projects  in  the  form  of  a  sharp  point. 
In  Hydrodroina  (Fig.  4)  there  appears  to  be  two  claws,  or  else 

*  See  "Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society,"  vol.  II.,  p.  73. 


92  DIAMONDS  AND 

the  terminal  claw  is  carried  by  the  side  of  an  equally  claw-shaped 
projection,  so  that  it  requires  a  little  management  to  demonstrate 
that  it  is  double.  In  the  last  figure,  that  of  Eylais^  the  whole 
organ  is  more  linear  than  in  any  other  mite.  The  difference  in  these 
organs  is  much  more  marked  in  the  specimens  themselves  than 
can  possibly  be  shown  by  my  mere  outline  sketches. 

I  may  just  say,  with  regard  to  the  last  family  of  the  fresh-water 
mites,  the  Sumpfmilben,  or  Mud-mites,  that  Koch  describes  four 
sub-families,  but  that  hitherto  I  have  only  been  fortunate  enough 
to  meet  with  one  of  them,  viz.,  Liinnochares^  and  here  th.  palpi 
are  very  small,  and  quite  unlike  those  of  any  of  the  swimming 
mites,  also  incapable  of  being  used  for  the  same  purposes.  I 
should  be  glad  of  specimens  for  examination,  if  anybody  working 
in  this  peculiar  groove  has  been  fortunate  enough  to  meet 
with  them. 


3)iamonl)6  anb  tbeir  llDietor?* 

By  James  A.  Forster. 


FIRST      PART. 


Plate  lo. 

THE  Diamond  was  probably  not  known  in  Europe  before 
direct  intercourse  with  the  nations  of  Southern  India  had 
been  brought  about  by  the  Macedonian  conquests.  It  is 
not  mentioned  by  Theophrastus  in  his  list  of  gems.  The  first 
indisputable  mention  of  the  Adamas  as  the  true  Diamond,  writes 
Mr.  King,  "  is  by  Manilius,  a  poet  of  the  latter  part  of  the  Augus- 
tan age,  who  describes  its  most  striking  characters,  minute  size, 
and  enormous  value." 

There  can,  I  think,  be  little  doubt  that  the  old  writers  fre- 
quently confounded,  under  the  name  of  Adamas,  the  Diamond 
with  the  Sapphire,  Chrysoberyl,  Zircon,  etc. ;  but,  to  again  quote 
from  Mr.  King,  "It  is  impossible  to  mistake  Pliny's  true  meaning, 
especially  if  attention  is  paid  to  the  admirably  chosen  compari- 
sons exemplifying  the  characters  of  the  gem."    King  then  gives  a 


Journal  of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3,  PI.  10. 


Diam-ond     Rock- Boring  Drill. 


''^S^f- 


W 


.v-^ 
^  ^>^% 


--^  -'7 


■  7    #  ;       ^^-'^ 


^"O^^/ 


"'^rr-^rj^mf^f  y 


The     Kohinoor     before     Recullin 

\<r\.    186    els. 


\ 


i\J\ 


1 


TjP 1  - - 


1 

a.  1 


-^^^^r^. 


f 


A- 


\ 


r  o  p  m  s 


o 


/^ 


x^ 


k  J 


#J 


/ 


Dianiorid 


'Sic 


Mm 


.!  / 


-4-' 


Cryst  ais 


Sections      mdicalmfe      the 
p  1  an  e  s     of      U  x  e  a  v  a  ^  e . 


D  lain  on  n  s 


THEIR  HISTORY.  93 

translation  of  Pliny's  description  of  the  Indian  Diamond  as  fol- 
lows : — "  It  appears  to  have  a  certain  affinity  to  crystal,  being 
colourless  and  transparent,  having  six  angles,  polished  faces,  and 
terminating  like  a  pyramid  in  a  sharp  point,  also  pointed  at  the 
opposite  extremities,  as  though  two  whipping-tops  were  joined 
together  by  their  broadest  ends." 

The  only  Diamonds  known  to  the  Romans  were  of  small  size 
(from  the  descriptions  handed  down  to  us,  probably  not  above  3 
carats'  weight),  and  as  they  possessed  no  means  of  cutting  or 
polishing  them,  were  mounted  in  their  natural  forms,  many  of 
which  are  easily  recognised  from  Pliny's  descriptions  of  them 
under  the  names  denoting  from  whence  they  came,  as  Ethiopian, 
Macedonian,  Arabian.  He  also  describes  very  accurately  the 
cubic  crystal  under  the  name  of  Androdamas,  and  the  spherical 
form  as  Cenchros.  In  all,  PHny  divides  his  Adamas  into  six 
kinds,  four  of  which  certainly  seem  to  have  been  the  true  Dia- 
mond, and  two  (which  he  himself  rejected  as  not  possessing  the 
qualities  of  the  true  Adamas)  would  appear  to  have  been  pale  and 
inferior  Sapphires  :  these  he  styled  respectively  "  Cyprian  and 
Siderites,"  and  stated  that  they  exceeded  the  others  in  weight, 
which  is  conclusive  proof  that  they  were  different  minerals. 

As  the  Romans  were  unable  to  develop  the  beauty  of  the 
stone  by  cutting  and  polishing,  they  probably  esteemed  and  wore 
the  Diamond  rather  as  a  taUsman  than  as  a  jewel,  and  were 
attracted  to  it  by  the  supernatural  virtues  attributed  to  it  by  the 
Indians,  who  have  always  regarded  it  with  peculiar,  and  frequently 
with  religious,  veneration.  This  has  been  forcibly  depicted  in 
Wilkie  Collins's  novel  of  the  "  Moonstone,"  which  does  not,  I 
believe,  at  all  exaggerate  the  feeling  of  reverence  that  Indians  have 
for  many  of  the  remarkable  and  historic  Diamonds ;  stones  that 
have,  indeed,  played  most  important  parts  in  the  history  of  their 
country  and  princes.  Most  notable  among  such  stones  is  our  own 
Koh-i-noor  (see  PI.  X.),  which  the  Hindoos  consider  to  possess  a 
genius  of  "  good  luck,"  and  also  the  power  of  bringing  mischief 
and  ruin  on  those  who  possess  themselves  of  it  by  fraud  or  force  ; 
and  in  confirmation  of  this  they  cite  the  remarkable  history  of  the 
stone.  Indian  tradition  traces  it  from  the  year  57  b.c.,  when  it  be- 
longed to  Bikramajeet,  Rajah  of  Milwa,  where  it  remained  a  crown 


94  DIAMONDS  AND 

jewel  for  ages.  It  then  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Moguls 
at  Delhi,  resting  there  until  the  last  inroad  of  the  Tartars  under 
Nadir  Shah,  who,  on  reinstating  his  Tartar  kinsman  on  the  throne 
of  Delhi,  kept  the  great  Diamond  for  himself.  The  tale  runs  that 
the  stone  was  mounted  in  the  turban  worn  by  the  king  of  Delhi, 
and  on  taking  leave  of  him.  Nadir  Shah,  as  a  mark  of  friendship, 
insisted  on  changing  turbans.  In  any  case,  it  went  back  with  the 
great  conqueror  to  Persia,  with  all  the  fabulous  wealth  accumu- 
lated by  the  Persian  host.  On  the  break-up  of  his  empire  after 
Nadir  Shah's  death,  the  Koh-i-noor  became  the  property  of 
Ahmed  Shah,  king  of  Afghanistan,  as  the  price  of  assistance  ren- 
dered by  him  to  the  king  of  Persia.  The  gem  from  that  time  is 
very  conspicuous  in  the  history  of  the  Afghan  princes — always  the 
symbol  of  power,  continually  the  incentive  to  treachery  and  rob- 
bery, until  it  went  into  exile  with  Shah  Soujah,  who,  hunted  from 
Peshawur  to  Cashmere,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Runjeet  Sing,  the  lion 
of  the  Punjaub;  he,  while  professing  friendship  to  the  unfortunate 
Dooranee  prince,  took  the  opportunity  to  despoil  him  of  his  trea- 
sured diamond.  It  descended  to  Runjeet's  successors,  who 
retained  it  till  the  Sikhs  were  finally  overthrown  in  1849  by  Eng- 
land, when  this  fateful  gem,  the  taUsman  of  Indian  sway,  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  East-India  Company,  who  presented  it  in 
1850  to  Queen  Victoria.  Since  then  it  has  been  re-cut,  but  unfor- 
tunately in  such  an  injudicious  manner  as  to  destroy  to  a  large 
extent  its  beauty,  the  stone,  in  order  to  preserve  its  size,  having 
been  cut  too  thin  for  it  to  have  the  lustre  and  brilliancy  inherent 
to  its  pure  and  beautiful  material,  which  is  perfection.  However, 
with  the  disappearance  of  its  ancient  Indian  form,  its  baleful 
influence,  we  may  hope,  has  also  passed  away,  and  that  it  will 
henceforth  remain  an  interesting  jewel  in  the  British  regalia. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Diamond  had  come  to  be  valued  and 
to  hold  the  foremost  place  as  a  gem  for  its  beauty  as  well  as  for  the 
mystic  qualities  which  superstition  assigned  to  it.  Principal 
among  these  was  the  power  to  counteract  poison,  to  ward  oif 
insanity,  and  to  inspire  courage  ;  further,  the  Italians  attributed  to 
it  the  power  of  maintaining  affection  between  husband  and  wife, 
for  which  quality  they  named  it  "  Pietra  della  Reconciliazione," 
and  on  this  account  it  was  used  as  the  most  appropriate  stone  for 
a  betrothal  ring. 


THEIR   HISTORY.  9 


K 


The  Medisevalist  workmen,  in  their  scorn  for  the  impossible 
and  love  of  surmounting  difficulties,  early  endeavoured  to  over- 
come the  indomitable  hardness  and  irrefragability  of  the  Diamond, 
and  thereby  to  discover  some  means  of  cutting  and  polishing  it  the 
same  as  other  stones.  Chemists  likewise  set  to  work  to  discover 
its  nature  and  to  speculate  on  its  origin.  The  consequent  experi- 
ments soon  bore  fruit,  and  in  1475  Louis  de  Berquem  of  Bruges 
was  able  to  cut  three  large  Diamonds  for  Charles  the  Bold.  Ber- 
quem's  invention  consisted  in  the  discovery  that  the  Diamond 
could  be  polished  by  means  of  its  own  dust,  and  consequently 
could  be  ground  away.  His  appliances  were^  however,  as  may  be 
supposed,  very  inadequate  for  the  task  he  undertook,  and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  doing  but  little  beyond  polishing  the  natural  facets  of 
the  crystal,  and  so  developing  its  brilliancy;  succeeding  lapidaries, 
however,  improved  and  perfected  his  method.  About  the  end  of 
the  1 6th  century,  the  art  made  great  progress,  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  17  th  century  the  possibility  of  cleaving  the  Diamond 
was  discovered.  This  discovery  was  the  most  important  step  till 
then  made  towards  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Diamond,  but  it 
was  not  until  more  than  a  century  after  that  its  full  value  was  recog- 
nised. I  shall  refer,  further  on,  more  fully  to  this  cleaving,  but 
may  here  state  that  the  diamond-cutters  of  the  17th  century  found 
they  could  split  a  diamond  crystal  in  certain  directions,  which  can 
be  done  as  easily  and  with  as  much  certainty  as  one  can  split  a 
piece  of  slate,  and  availed  themselves  of  this  to  divide  a  stone  as 
might  be  requisite  for  the  improving  of  its  shape  or  the  removal  of 
defects.  Scientific  men,  on  their  side,  had  not  been  idle,  and 
throughout  the  17th  century  experiments  were  made  by  French 
and  Italian  chemists  as  to  the  effect  of  heat  on  the  Diamond,  but 
without  result,  and  it  was  left  for  our  own  illustrious  philosopher, 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  to  indicate  for  the  first  time  the  true  nature  of 
the  Diamond. 

Newton,  in  his  investigation  of  the  refraction  of  light  by  trans- 
parent bodies,  found  that  those  that  are  uninflammable  refract 
light  nearly  in  the  ratio  of  their  density,  while  those  that  are 
inflammable  have  refractive  powers  that  are  greater  than  their  den- 
sity. And  as  the  Diamond  has  a  very  high  refractive  power  and  a 
comparatively  low  density,  he  concluded  that  it  was  combustible — 


96  DIAMONDS   AND 

a  fact  soon  to  be  proved,  and  he  went  still  further,  and  wTOte  that 
probably  it  was  an  "unctuous  substance  coagulated."  By  unctu- 
ous substance,  he  meant  such  as  camphor,  spirit  of  turpentine, 
gums,  etc.  At  a  later  period,  Brewster  still  further  established  the 
connection  between  a  high  degree  of  inflammability  and  a  great 
refractive  force,  by  the  high  refractive  power  he  detected  in  phos- 
phorus. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  Boyle,  as  predicted  by 
Newton,  demonstrated  that  under  an  excessive  heat  the  Diamond 
disappeared.  A  little  later,  in  1694,  a  diamond  was  destroyed  at 
Florence  by  means  of  a  "  burning  glass,"  and  the  spectators  saw 
with  wonder  it  first  become  smaller  and  then  entirely  disappear, 
under  the  action  of  the  rays  of  the  sun.  It  was  not,  however, 
till  nearly  a  century  afterwards  that  the  investigation  of  the  nature 
of  the  Diamond  by  the  aid  of  heat  was  seriously  prosecuted.  In 
1 771,  before  a  distinguished  company  of  savants,  Macquer  burnt 
a  fine  Diamond  in  his  laboratory  in  Paris.  Immediately  a  great 
amount  of  discussion  arose,  some  experts  maintaining  that  fire 
had  no  effect  on  the  Diamond ;  amongst  the  most  notable  was 
M.  Blanc,  a  celebrated  jeweller  of  Paris,  who,  to  prove  his  asser- 
tion, proposed  to  submit  a  diamond  to  the  heat  of  a  furnace  for 
three  hours.  This  experiment  was  performed  in  the  laboratory  of 
a  chemist  named  Rouelle,  and  attracted  a  large  number  of  men 
of  science  and  jewellers.  The  stone  was  placed  in  a  crucible, 
which  was  filled  with  lime,  and  submitted  to  the  fire,  and  Blanc 
had  to  return  home  without  his  diamond,  much  to  the  delight  of 
the  savants.  After  this,  a  clever  lapidary  of  the  name  of  Maillard 
came  to  the  rescue  of  his  confi-ere,  and  offered  to  submit  three 
diamonds  to  any  fire,  and  for  any  length  of  time.  This  challenge 
being  accepted,  Maillard  placed  his  diamonds  in  the  bowl  of  a 
clay  tobacco-pipe,  covered  them  up  with  charcoal-dust,  so  as  to 
exclude  air,  closed  the  top  of  the  bowl  with  an  iron  cover,  and 
placed  it  in  a  crucible  filled  with  powdered  chalk.  This  was  sub- 
mitted to  such  a  heat  that  at  the  end  of  four  hours  the  crucible  had 
become  a  vitrified  mass.  The  fire  was  then  stopped,  and  on  the 
mass  cooling,  Maillard,  amidst  the  jokes  of  the  spectators,  who 
recommended  him  to  look  up  the  chimney  for  his  diamonds, 
broke  open  the  crucible,  and  there  in  the  centre  was  the  tobacco- 


THEIR  HISTORY.  97 

pipe,  with  its  charcoal  and  diamonds  intact.  The  result  of  this 
experiment  proved  that,  while  the  Diamond  disappeared  when 
subjected  to  a  great  heat  in  the  presence  of  air,  it  resisted  the 
utmost  heat  that  could  be  applied  if  air  was  completely  excluded. 
Once  this  fact  was  established,  the  final  solution  of  the  problem  of 
the  analysis  of  the  Diamond  could  not  long  be  delayed,  and  soon 
Lavoisier  in  France,  and  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  in  England,  answered, 
each  in  his  way,  the  question  of  "What  is  the  Diamond?" 
Lavoisier  succeeded  in  burning  a  diamond  in  an  atmosphere  of 
oxygen  over  mercury  by  means  of  a  burning  lens^  and  established 
by  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  after  the  combustion,  that  car- 
bon was  one  of  the  elements  of  the  Diamond.  Davy  went  still 
further,  and  showed  that  as  the  combustion  of  a  diamond  in  an 
atmosphere  of  oxygen  gave  rise  to  nothing  else  than  carbonic  acid 
or  carbonic  oxide,  th$  Diamond  consisted  simply  of  carbon  in  a 
state  of  absolute  purity.  In  fact,  it  was  that  element  crystalHsed, 
and  the  Diamond  had  at  length  yielded  to  the  chemist  the  secret 
of  its  nature,  as  its  form  and  hardness  had  yielded  to  the  patience 
of  the  lapidary.  The  Diamond  was  conquered  and  much  of  the 
mystery  enveloping  it  dispelled,  but  there  yet  remained  to  be  dis- 
covered its  origin  and  true  geological  position.  Before,  however, 
entering  upon  this  question,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  carefully  the 
Diamond  as  a  mineral,  and  to  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  its 
form  and  characteristics. 

The  Diamond  belongs  to  the  tesseral  or  cubic  system,  having 
three  axes  at  right  angles,  and  occurs  in  many  different  forms  and 
appearances.  So  dissimilar,  indeed,  are  some  specimens  from  the 
normal  type,  that  the  uninitiated  would  hardly  suppose  they  could 
be  the  same  substance.  It  is  found  as  crystals  of  various  shapes 
and  of  every  colour,  also  in  more  or  less  crj^stalline  masses  of  no 
special  or  definite  form.  This  variety  is  known  as  Bort,  and  is  of 
no  use  as  a  gem,  being  so  flawed  and  knotted  in  its  formation  as  to 
be  almost,  or  quite,  opaque.  It  has,  however,  its  value,  being  of 
great  importance  in  the  arts  and  for  mechanical  purposes.  Be- 
sides the  crystalHsed  forms,  there  is  an  exceedingly  curious  and 
interesting  variety,  almost  amorphous,  that  is  called  Carbonate, 
occurring  in  broken  pieces,  opaque,  black,  reddish,  or  grey,  and 
very  rarely  showing  traces  of  crystalline  structure.     In  appearance 


98  DIAMONDS   AND 

it  is  much  like  broken  chips  of  haematite ;  of  course,  it  is  identi- 
cal, chemically,  with  the  crystalline  Diamond,  but  excepting  its 
supreme  hardness,  it  possesses  little  to  remind  one  of  a  Diamond. 
The  Carbonate  is  found  only  in  Brazil,  and  is  much  valued  and 
employed  for  engineering  purposes,  especially  for  rock-boring,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  preferable  to  the  crystallised  Diamond,  being 
less  liable  to  spHt  when  subjected  to  great  pressure  or  concussion. 

It  would  be  impossible,  in  the  limits  of  this  paper,  to  describe 
the  various  uses  made  of  Bort  and  Carbonate,  but  their  importance 
will  be  indicated  by  the  fact  that  selected  pieces  are  mounted  as 
turning-tools  for  the  turning  of  chilled  steel  rollers,  emery-wheels, 
stone,  and  such  excessively  hard  substances  as  defy  the  finest 
chisels  that  can  be  manufactured,  thus  avoiding,  to  a  large  extent, 
the  slow  and  laborious  process  of  grinding  by  emery.  It  is  also 
mounted  on  rollers  for  the  purpose  of  dressing  mill-stones,  and, 
perhaps  most  important  of  all,  it  is  made,  as  stated  above,  into  drills 
for  rock-boring  (see  Plate).  These  drills  are  composed  of  a  steel 
ring,  in  the  edge  of  which  pieces  of  bort  or  carbon  are  embedded. 
The  ring  is  fastened  on  to  the  end  of  a  steel  tube,  which  is  made 
to  revolve  against  the  surface  of  the  rock  by  steam  power,  and  as 
the  drill  grinds  into  the  rock,  it  is  lengthened  by  screwing  fresh 
steel  tubes  into  the  original  one.  Very  deep  borings  (it  is  stated 
over  2,000  feet)  can  thus  be  effected  very  rapidly.  A  good  tool 
will  pierce  hard  granite  at  the  rate  of  three  inches  per  minute, 
and  so  through  many  thousand  feet,  without  serious  wear 
taking  place.  Of  course,  great  pressure  is  required,  and  the  Dia- 
monds have  to  be  kept  cool  by  the  pumping  of  water  through  the 
tubes.  The  inferior  kinds  of  Diamond  are  also  crushed  to  make 
diamond-powder,  for  which  there  is  a  very  large  and  increasing 
employment. 

The  Diamond  is  usually  described  as  crystallising  in  some 
half-dozen  separate  and  different  forms.  This  is  certainly  inac- 
curate, for,  however  dissimilar  diamond-crystals  may  be  in 
appearance  (and  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  very  beautiful 
and  distinct  forms  occur),  yet  they  are  all  reducible  to  the 
simple  normal  form  of  the  regular  octahedron,  from  which 
the  most  complex  forms  are  built  up  according  to  a  simple  and 
definite  law.     Nature  would  seem  to  have  done  her  utmost  to 


THEIR   HISTORY.  99 

puzzle  the  mineralogist  with  a  multitude  of  beautiful  geometric 
shapes,  among  which  it  is  indeed  difficult  to  know  where  to  begin. 
We  have  a  crystal  of  eight  triangular  sides,  with  sharp  angles  and 
straight  edges,  in  form  like  two  square  pyramids,  joined  base  to 
base ;  this  is  the  regular  octahedron ;  we  have  one  of  6  sides,  a 
perfect  cube;  another  with  curved  edges  and  24  sides;  another  with 
1 2  sides ;  another  of  the  shape  of  a  cocked  hat,  having  an  irre- 
gular edge,  this  is  a  double  crystal  or  twin.  Some  have  their  sides 
beautifully  smooth  and  polished ;  others  striated,  or  covered  with 
little  triangular  pits,  and  presenting  a  grey,  semi-opaque  appear- 
ance ;  some  are  coated  with  a  dense  colouring  matter  that  appears 
to  have  entered  into  the  outer  layer  of  the  crystal,  and  effectually 
prevents  the  interior  being  seen.  Very  frequently,  a  stone  so 
coated,  and  appearing,  when  found,  deep  green  and  semi-trans- 
parent, on  being  cut  produces  a  fine  brilliant  of  the  purest  white. 
These  regular  forms  are,  however,  comparatively  rare,  as  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  Diamonds  found  are  broken  chips  and  frag- 
ments of  every  possible  shape.  All  this  multitude  of  different 
shapes  are,  however,  as  stated  above,  derived  or  built  up  from 
one  normal  form,  the  regular  octahedron.  The  question  will 
be  asked,  "  Why  should  the  octahedron  be  considered  the 
normal  form  any  more  than  another — say  the  cube  ? "  The 
answer  is,  that  the  cube  can  be  cleaved  into  the  octahedron,  but 
the  octahedron  cannot  be  cleaved  into  the  cubic  form.  For  this 
reason,  that  whatever  is  the  shape  of  the  Diamond,  the  cleavage 
planes  are  always  the  same — viz.,  in  four  directions  parallel  to  the 
four  pairs  of  faces  of  the  octahedron,  and  in  no  other  direction  is 
it  possible  to  split  a  Diamond.  It  consequently  follows  that  in 
cleaving  (see  Plate)  one  can  only  produce  faces  of  an  octahedron. 
The  process  of  cleaving  might  fairly  be  called  unmaking  a  Dia- 
mond, for  as  Nature  has  built  up  the  crystal  layer  upon  layer, 
so  the  cleaver  takes  off  layer  after  layer  till  he  lays  bare  the 
original  shape. 

The  Diamond,  being  of  the  tesseral  system  of  crystallisation, 
has  consequently  three  equal  axes  intersecting  each  other  at  right 
angles,  and  around  these  three  axes  the  ultimate  carbon  atoms 
that  are  to  form  the  crystal,  group  themselves  according  to  an 
invariable  law,  in  triangular  laminae,  resting  at  definite  angles  with 


100  DIAMONDS  AND   THEIR  HISTORY. 

the  axes,  and  forming  planes  that  are  the  planes  of  the  octahe- 
dron ;  and  it  is  only  by  laminae  laid  on  these  octahedral  faces  that 
increase  takes  place.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  if  additions  are 
made  to  some  faces  of  the  original  crystal  and  not  to  others,  the 
shape  of  the  crystal  will  be  altered ;  also,  if  a  series  of  laminae, 
decreasing  gradually  in  size,  are  piled  up  on  the  triangular  faces  of 
an  octahedron,  each  face  will  be  trisected,  and  the  octahedron 
crystal  changed  into  a  crystal  of  24  sides  (see  Plate).  So  it  is 
with  al]  other  forms ;  they  are  all  built  up  by  additions  to  some 
or  all  of  the  original  faces  of  the  octahedron. 

I  have  spoken  continually  of  cleaving,  and  should  perhaps 
have  explained  the  process  before.  First,  a  cleavage  plane  is 
found  by  examination  of  the  surface-indications  on  the  stone ; 
then,  having  ascertained  the  directions  in  which  it  is  possible  to 
cleave  the  stone,  the  workman  fixes  it  by  means  of  cement  on  a 
handle.  This  he  holds  in  his  left  hand,  and  with  a  sharp  splinter 
of  Diamond,  similarly  fixed  in  a  handle  held  in  his  right  hand,  he 
abrades  on  the  Diamond  to  be  cleaved  a  small  notch  over  the 
plane  through  which  he  intends  to  split.  This  done,  he  places  the 
edge  of  a  knife  in  the  notch,  and  a  gentle  tap  causes  the  diamond 
to  separate.  Although  it  is  so  easily  split  in  this  manner,  yet  a 
heavy  blow  from  a  hammer  would  probably  fail  to  break  it. 

Having  considered  the  outward  form  of  the  Diamond,  there 
remains  its  physical  qualities  to  be  investigated.  First  in  import- 
ance is  its  hardness,  which  distinguishes  it  at  once  from  any  other 
stone.  It  is  the  hardest  substance  in  nature,  and  can  only  be 
scratched  by  itself,  while  by  it  everything  can  easily  be  abraded. 
It  is  this  quality  of  supreme  hardness  that  gives  the  Diamond  its 
value  to  the  engineer  for  rock-boring,  the  glazier  for  glass-cutting, 
the  miller  for  dressing  his  mill-stones,  and  the  lapidary  for  cutting 
other  stones. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  Diamond  is  3-55,  being  character- 
istically light  (although  so  much  harder,  it  is  lighter  than  the 
Sapphire).  This,  in  conjunction  with  its  great  refractive  power,  as 
before  stated,  first  led  to  the  theory  that  it  was  combustible.  Of 
its  optical  properties,  I  have  not  space  in  this  paper  to  say  more 
than  that  it  refracts  light  more  than  any  other  gem,  which  quality, 
with  its  capacity,  thanks  to  its  hardness,  of  receiving  the  brightest 


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A  BIT  OF  GROUNDSEL.  101 

possible  polish,  is  the  chief  cause  of  its  beauty  as  a  jewel.  When 
subjected  to  friction,  it  becomes  highly  electric,  and  after  being 
exposed  to  the  sun  or  to  a  galvanic  current,  it  is  said  to  show 
phosphoresence  in  the  dark. 

(To  be  co?itimied.) 


a  Bit  of  (Brounbecl. 

By  Rev.  H.  W.  Lett,  M.A.,  Trin.  Coll.,  Dub. 
Plates  II  and  12. 


<<  T7AR-OFF  cows  have  long  horns"  is  applicable  to  the  ideas 
X/  of  many  a  possessor  of  a  microscope ;  the  cabinet,  con- 
versation, and  practice  of  such  showing  that  little  is 
thought  of  any  "  object,"  unless  it  be  of  select — perhaps  Chal- 
lenger  reputation  ;  whereas  the  weeds  and  pebbles  crushed  under 
foot  every  day  can  furnish  work  for  many  a  night,  and  thoughts 
for  weeks  to  come. 

"  A  wayside  plant,  a  common  weed, 
Will  furnish  all  that  we  can  need." 
To  illustrate  this  philosophy,  let  us  take  a  bit  of  common 
Groundsel — Senecio  vulgaris — so  well  known  as  a  favourite  food  of 
the  bird-fancier's  pets,  examine  it  microscopically,  and  see  some- 
thing of  what  may  be  added  to  the  descriptions  given  in  the 
ordinary  works  on  common  flowers. 

Groundsel,  being  a  native  of  Northern  Europe,  and  found  in 
all  cool  climates,  and  flowering  nearly  all  the  year  round,  can  be 
easily  procured.  It  is  also  a  typical  representative  of  the  largest 
and  most  complete  natural  order  of  plants,  viz. — the  Compositce^ 
all  of  which  are  herbs  or  half-shrubs.  Their  flowers  are  crowded 
together  in  dense  heads  upon  a  common  receptacle,  surrounded 
by  an  outer,  close-fitting,  calyx-like  involucre  (Plate  XL,  Fig.  8). 
Each  of  these  heads  or  colonies  of  flowers  is  a  veritable  fairy 
bouquet,  ready  in  its  holder  for  Queen  Mab  to  pluck.     It  will  be 


102  A   BIT   OF  GROUNDSEL. 

found  that  the  crowding  of  flower-heads  on  a  common  stalk  is  by 
no  means  Hmited  to  the  one  natural  order  to  which  Groundsel 
belongs,  but  may  be  traced  through  various  stages  of  development 
in  clover,  in  the  umbel  of  hemlock,  in  the  corymb  of  the  cherry, 
and  in  the  panicle  of  grasses.  For  if  we  crowd  these  flowers 
close  together  without  their  stalks,  we  have  an  exact  representa- 
tion of  the  flower-head  of  the  daisy  and  groundsel. 

To  begin  with  the  hoary  head  of  seed-down,  whence  the  name 
Senecio,  from  senex,  an  old  man ;  each  white  fibre  of  this  shuttle- 
cock by  which  the  ripe  seed  is  dispersed  by  the  wind  is  slightly 
waved,  and  has  serrated  edges  (Plate  XL,  Fig.  4) ;  when  mois- 
tened with  water,  it  will  be  seen,  under  ^'  o.g.,  to  be  hollow,  and 
to  have  a  branched  tube  opening  out  of  each  tooth.  Before  the 
ovule  is  fertilised  (Plate  XI.,  Fig.  i),  this  down,  or  pappus,  is 
pressed  close  to  the  little  yellow  corolla,  being,  in  fact,  the  modi- 
fied calyx.  As  soon  as  fertilisation  has  occurred  (Plate  XI.,  Fig. 
2),  and  the  ovule  begins  to  swell  into  a  seed,  the  pappus  becomes 
larger,  and  the  tiny  corolla  falls  out  of  the  middle  of  the  bunch  of 
hairs,  which  is  then  ready  spread,  and  floats  off  with  the  seed  on 
the  first  breeze. 

The  seed  is  somewhat  oval,  and,  as  the  text-books  describe  it, 
"ribbed  and  silky"  (Plate  XL,  Fig.  3).  With  a  i-inch  o.g.,  lon- 
gitudinal bands  of  alternate  yellow  and  brown"  may  be  discovered 
on  the  seed,  the  brown  portion  bearing  small,  blunt  hairs  which 
point  upwards,  the  yellow  bands  being  formed  of  longer  and  more 
slender  hairs,  lying  quite  flat  when  dry  (Plate  XL,  Fig.  5).  When 
wetted  with  a  drop  of  water,  they  will  rise  up,  straighten  them- 
selves, and  stand  out  at  nearly  right  angles  from  the  seed.  A  few 
globules  of  oil  may  be  noticed  when  a  portion  of  a  seed  is  crushed 
in  the  field  of  view. 

The  pollen  (Plate  XL,  Fig.  6)  is  nearly  globular,  with  three 
principal,  and  many  minute,  projections,  and  will  be  found  a  much 
severer  test  for  the  defining  powers  of  an  objective  than  the  popu- 
lar mallow  pollen.  And  the  pollen  tubes  (Plate  XL,  Fig.  7), 
which  penetrate  through  the  style  down  to  the  ovary,  and  fertilise 
the  ovule  or  embryo  seed,  can  be  found  in  all  stages  of  growth  on 
almost  every  stamen.  The  heads  of  the  Groundsel  flowers 
become  conical  after  fertilisation  (Plate  XL,   Fig.   8).     This  is 


Jourr.al    of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3,  PI. 12 


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A  BIT  OF  GROUNDSEL.  103 

caused  by  the  enlarged  growth  of  the  cells  on  the  end  of  the 
flower-stalk.  A  like  process,  but  on  a  much  more  extensive  scale, 
produces  the  edible  heads  of  the  garden  artichoke  {Cynara 
scolymus)^  and  the  luscious  strawberry.  The  stamens  which  pro- 
duce the  pollen-dust  are  found  in  all  the  Compositce  within  the 
tube  of  the  corolla ;  and  their  anthers  are  united  into  a  tube 
which  encircles  the  style,  whence  the  plants  belonging  to  this 
natural  order  are  called  in  the  Linnsean  system  Syngejiecious  (Plate 
XI.,  Fig.  lo). 

The  style  (Plate  XL,  Fig.  9)  is  well  worth  attention.  It  is 
slender  and  thread-like,  and  spHt  at  the  top ;  the  two  portions 
curving  away  from  each  other.  The  tips  and  upper  surfaces  of 
these  are  densely  set  with  little  processes,  from  which  is  exuded 
the  sticky  substance  that  retains  the  pollen  when  it  falls  upon  it. 
It  is  evident  that  the  position  of  these  processes  on  the  tipper  with 
none  on  the  under  sides  of  the  stigma,  is  to  ensure  cross,  and  to 
prevent  self  fertilisation. 

Let  us  next  take  the  stem,  which  is  channelled  or  streaked 
with  longitudinal  lines,  and,  as  seen  in  the  transverse  section 
(Plate  XIL,  Fig.  2),  sHghtly  angular;  botanical  books  describe  it  as 
-'  glabrous,  or  bearing  a  little  loose  cottony  wool."  This  "  wool " 
is  found  chiefly  on  the  young  parts — in  the  forks  of  the  branches 
and  leaves,  and  is  of  the  nature  of  trichome  or  plant-hairs ;  here 
it  is  a  string  of  cells,  like  glassy  beads  (Plate  XIL,  Fig.  8),  and  is 
similar  to  the  larger  hairs  of  the  common  Sow  Thistle,  SoncJms 
pahistris. 

If  we  now  make  a  transverse  and  also  a  longitudinal  section, 
and  note  the  arrangement  and  shape  of  the  cells  in  each,  we  shall 
see  that  all  are  nearly  cubical,  except  those  of  the  cuticle,  which 
are  six  times  longer  than  they  are  wide.  Here  are  to  be  observed 
the  three  systems  of  tissues,  viz. — (i)  the  epidermal,  (2)  the  ground, 
and  (3)  the  fibro-vascular.  i. — The  epidermal  tissue,  there  being 
no  bark  (Plate  XIL,  Fig.  3  and  Fig.  i  a),  is  one  row  of  long 
and  flattened  cells.  2. — The  ground  or  fundamental  tissue  (Plate 
XIL,  Fig.  4  and  Fig.  i  ^),  some  of  the  cell-layers  of  which  are 
filled  with  purple  colouring-matter  immediately  outside  the  fibro- 
vascular  bundles.  The  cells  of  the  ground  tissue  gradually 
increase  in  size  towards  the  centre  of  the  stem,  till  they  are  rup- 


104  A  BIT  OF  GROUNDSEL. 

tured  (Plate  XIL,  Fig.  2),  and  the  centre  is  left  vacant,  thus 
affording  an  excellent  example  of  how  the  stems  of  many  plants 
become  hollow.  3. — The  fibro-vascular  tissue  (Plate  XIL,  Fig.  i 
c  and  Fig.  2),  in  bundles  more  or  less  numerous,  but  where  our 
section  was  cut  numbered  twenty-six,  and  arranged  with  the 
smaller  and  younger  bundles  alternating  with  the  larger.  Their 
division  into  xylem  or  woody  matter  and  phloem,  or  portions 
wherein  addition  and  increase  take  place  by  growth,  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished, without  having  resort  to  the  double  staining  so  need- 
ful in  many  cases. 

The  polariscope  will  afford  much  assistance  in  examining  these 
sections,  and  while  noting  the  various  arrangements  and  forms  of 
the  cells,  we  shall  find  that  the  longitudinal  section  of  a  stem  of 
Groundsel  is  a  much  more  beautiful  polariscopic  object  than 
dozens  of  the  ordinary  polarising  slides.  The  sections  made 
while  preparing  this  paper  were  cut  slightly  oblique  with  a  razor 
and  mounted,  for  the  time,  in  a  few  drops  of  water.  The  leaf  did 
not  polarise  at  all.  A  transverse  section  showed  an  epidermal 
layer  of  small  cells,  containing  no  chlorophyll  (Plate  XIL,  Fig.  5). 
This  causes  the  slightly  crystalline  appearance  of  the  upper  side  of 
the  leaves.  Beneath  this  epidermal  layer  is  a  thickness  of  five  or 
six  cells,  full  of  chlorophyll,  whose  rounded  form  is  owing  to 
freedom  from  compression.  The  under-surface  of  the  leaf  con- 
sists of  map-shaped  cells,  among  which  are  the  stomata  opening 
into  large  air-spaces  (Plate  XII.^  Fig.  6).  A  i-inch  o.g.  showed 
the  stomata  very  well. 

No  crystals  or  lactiferous  vessels  could  be  discerned  in  the 
stem  or  leaf,  and  no  trace  of  starch  appeared  in  any  part  of  the 
plant  in  answer  to  the  iodine  test. 

Under  a  ^-inch  o.g.,  a  root-fibre  was  a  very  interesting  object, 
having  a  canal  in  the  centre  (Plate  XIL,  Fig.  7),  bordered  by 
spiral  vessels  continued  to  the  root-cap,  and  was  quite  transparent 
with  ordinary  light. 

On  the  leaves  were  found  two  species  of  fungi,  Peroiiospora 
gafigliformis  (Plate  XIL,  Fig.  9),  a  white  mildew,  covering  the 
under  side,  the  tips  of  whose  branches  are  in  an  umbel,  while  the 
spores  are  globular.  Nothing  can  be  more  lovely  than  a  colony  of 
this  fungus,   seen  with  a  J-inch  o.g.,  and  Lieberkuhn.     It  is  a 


A  BIT  OF  GROUNDSEL.  105 

perfect  forest  of  silvery  fruit-trees,  the  stalks  of  which  twist  in 
drying,  the  spores  being  discharged  by  the  action.  This  parasite 
is  very  common  on  Groundsel  in  July  and  August.  The  other 
fungus,  Trichobasis  senecionis^  is  not  so  frequently  met  with.  It  is 
found  as  a  reddish  rust  occupying  all  the  under-surface  of  the  leaf. 
This  description  by  no  means  exhausts  all  that  could  be  got 
out  of  a  "  bit  of  Groundsel."  Let  anyone  try  it,  and  the  excla- 
mation is  sure  to  be,  "  The  half  was  not  told  me."  The  writer 
has  endeavoured  to  show  something  of  what  may  be  found  to 
study  with  the  microscope  in  a  common  wayside  weed. 


EXPLANATION  OF   PLATES   XL    AND  XII. 


Plate  XL 

Fig.  1. — Seed  of  Groundsel  before  fertilisation. 
,,    2. — Seed  qf  same  after  fertilisation. 
,,    3. — Seed  of  same,   x  20  diam. 
,,    4. — Hair  of  pappus,  x  20  diam. 
,,    5. — Short  and  long  hairs  from  seed,  x  100  diam. 
,,    6. — Pollen,  X  400  diam. 
,,    7. — Pollen,  with  tube  partly  grown. 

,,    8. — Heads  of  flowers  before  (5)  and  after  (a)  fertilisation. 
,,    9. — Stigmas  and  part  of  corolla,  x  100  diam. 
10. — Stamens  and  part  of  style,   x  100  diam. 


5) 


Drawn  by  H.  W.  Lett. 


Plate  XIL 


Fig.  1. — Part  of  longitudinal  section  of  stem  of  groundsel: — (a) 
epidermal  tissue  ;  (6)  ground  tissue;  (c)  fibro- vascular  tissue, 
X  50  diam. 

,j  2. — Transverse  section  of  stem  of  same,  x  20  diam.,  showing 
ruptured  cells  in  centre,  and  arrangement  of  fibro-vascular 
bundles. 


106  AN   INEXPENSIVE  TUKN-TABLE. 

Fig.  3. — Transverse  section  of  part  of  eiDidermal  tissue,  x  50  diam. 

4. — Ditto  ditto  ditto    ground  tissue,  x  50  diam. 

5. — Transverse  section  of  part  of  leaf,  x  100  diam. 

6. — Under-surface  of  leaf,  with  stomata,  x  100  diam. 

7. — Tip  of  a  rootlet,  x  280  diam. 

8. — Hair  from  stem,  x  20  diam. 

9. — Fungus,    Peronospora    gangliformis,    or    mould    on    leaf    of 
Groundsel,    x    100  diam. 

Drawn  by  H.  W.  Lett. 


55 
55 
55 
55 
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Hn  Jncypcn^lvc  ^urn=*^able. 

By  E.  J.  E.  Creese,  F.R.M.S. 


SOME  time  ago,  a  few  creditably-mounted  Microscopical  Slides 
of  Wood  Sections  were  submitted  to  me  for  inspection,  with 
an  apology  for  their  having  been  ^'  finished  "  under  unfavourable 
circumstances.  These  were — that  the  mounter  (a  member  of  the 
local  Microscopical  Society  with  which  I  am  connected)  having 
lived  in  a  village,  had  there  to  construct  and  find  his  mounting 
apparatus,  and  did  not  possess  a  turn-table. 

This  suggested  to  me  the  feasibility  of  constructing  a  "  home- 
made "  turn-table,  which  anyone  with  ordinary  knack  can  make 
for  himself  at  the  cost  of  a  shilling,  and  of  which  I  will  give  a 
brief  description. 

The  materials  are  easily  obtained,  and  it  will  be  found  to  w^ork 
very  satisfactorily.  A,  B,  C  (Fig.  i)  are  three  pieces  of  hard 
wood,  cut  out  and  put  together  to  the  pattern  shown.  The  length 
of  A  and  C  is  9  inches,  and  the  height  of  B  is  regulated  by  the 
length  of  the  arbor,  E.  D  is  an  old,  heavy  clock-wheel  of  nearly 
3  inches  diameter,  which  may  be  obtained  of  any  clock  maker 
for  a  few  pence,  or  at  a  gift,  inclusive  of  rust,  dust,  and  cobwebs. 
This  wheel  is  always  supplied  with  an  arbor,  E,  attached,  which 
measures  2  to  3  inches  in  length.    F  is  a  little  grooved  wheel. 


AN   INEXPENSIVE  TUKN-TABLE. 


107 


Fic   I. 


which  can  be  squared  on  the  circular-shaped  arbor  (as  at  F',  Fig. 

2)  by  the  use  of  a  file,  and  then  fixed  by  a  small  wedge.     J  is  a 

hole  in  the  upper  piece  of  wood  that  forms  the  hand-rest,  and 

should  be  carefully  bored,  G  being  a  small  hole  in  the  lower  piece 

of  wood  into   which  to  let  the  smoothly-filed  and  pointed  end 

of  the  arbor.     H  is  a  clamp  for  fixing  to  an  ordinary  table  or 

board,  and  can  be  bought  for  a  few  pence,  or  made  at  home.     To 

rotate  the  table,  a  bow  such  as  watch-makers  use,    should  be 

constructed,  and  the  stretched  string  passed  round  the  grooved 

wheel  (as  at  M,  Fig.  2),  the  bow  being  worked  backwards  and 

forwards  with  the  left  hand,  whilst  the  right  hand  is  employed  in 

finishing  the  slide.     Fig.  3  shows  how  the  glass  slip  is  attached  to 

the  wheel.     At  L  a  deep  notch  is  cut  in  the  circumference  of  the 

wheel,  and  a  piece  of  string,  10  inches  long,  attached  at  one  end, 

being  kept  by  a  knot,  on  the  under  side  of  the  wheel.     The  slip 

K  is  then  centred  as  accurately  as  possible  and  the  string  brought 

over  the  top,  then  under  the  wheel,  following  the  directions  of  the 

arrow-heads,  over  the  other  end  of  the  slip,  and  again  under  the 

wheel,  until  it  is  brought  over  the  deep  notch  at  L  and  secured  by 

a  second  knot  already  made  at  the  other  end  of  the  string.     It 

will   be  found  convenient  to  cut  8  of  these  notches  upon  the 

circumference  of  the  wheel  at  equal  distances  from  each  other. 

I  submit  this  simple  and  inexpensive  turn-table  in  the  hope 
that  it  may  serve  those  who,  like  my  friend,  are  willing,  but 
unable  to  indulge  themselves  with  the  materials  by  which 
properly  to  prosecute  their  loved  work  of  mounting  preparations 
for  microscopic  examination. 


[108] 


By  V.  R.  Perkins,  M.E.S.L.      Plate  13. 


THAT  the  Stylopidae  are  a  very  interesting  as  well  as  a  very 
peculiar  family  of  insects,  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever. 
When  the  first  specimen  of  Stylops  was  discovered  by 
Kirby,  he  was  completely  puzzled  as  to  what  order  it  belonged, 
and  after  a  most  critical  examination  of  its  structural  characteris- 
tics, he  thought  it  remarkable  enough  to  found  a  new  order  for  its 
reception — the  order  of  Strepsiptera,  or  twisted-winged,  from 
the  peculiar  twist  taken  by  their  anterior  wings,  if  such  they  can 
be  called.  This  order  was  placed  next  after  the  Hymenoptera. 
It  is  composed  of  a  very  small  group,  three  species  only  occurring 
in  England,  all  of  small  size,  the  largest  not  being  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length.  These  insects  are  what  are  termed  personal  para- 
sites— that  is,  they  live  within  the  body  of  their  victim,  the  wild 
bee  ;  but  as  their  structural  characters  vary  slightly  with  regard  to 
each  other,  they  are  divided  into  as  many  genera  as  species. 

The  general  character  of  the  perfect  insects  indicates  great 
weakness,  and  consequently  their  life  is  of  very  short  duration, 
limited  in  all  probability  to  a  few  hours  only.  Their  whole  struc- 
ture, however,  is  very  remarkable.  The  eyes,  from  which  the 
typical  genus  takes  its  name,  are  very  large,  lateral,  and  promi- 
nent, and  being  placed  upon  the  contracted  sides  of  the  head, 
give  them  the  appearance  of  being  pedunculated ;  besides  this, 
they  have  remarkably  few  facets.  The  mouth  is  equally  singular; 
Westwood,  who  has  examined  and  dissected  several,  tells  us  he 
has  not  been  able  to  detect  any  oral  aperture  whatever,  and 
therefore  it  is  very  probable  that  the  perfect  insect  requires  no 
food  during  its  short  existence.  The  mandibles,  maxills,  and 
labium  are  all  so  extraordinary  as  to  have  caused  the  Stylops  to  be 
placed  by  different  naturalists  in  almost  every  order  of  the 
insecta :   Hymenoptera,   Diptera,    Orthoptera,  Lepidoptera,   and 


Journal  of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3, PI. 13. 


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STYLOPS.  109 

Coleoptera;    in   short,   both   among    the   Mandibulata  and   the 
Haustelata. 

Their  antennae  are  either  branched  or  flabellate.  In  this  they 
resemble  many  Coleoptera  and  Hymenoptera  ;  and  as  the  insects 
in  these  two  orders  which  have  similar  antennae  are  always  males^  so 
Westwood  considered  his  specimens  to  be  males  also.  Their 
peculiar  labium  united  them  after  the  same  method  of  reasoning 
with  the  biting  Diptera.  The  thorax  is,  perhaps,  still  more  peculiar. 
It  is  very  long ;  in  fact,  simply  enormous  for  the  size  of  the  insect, 
and  the  greatest  part  being  made  up  of  the  meta-thorax,  it  appears 
quite  to  overlap  the  basal  joints  of  the  abdomen.  Attached  to 
the  meso-thorax  are  two  very  curious  appendages,  like  twisted 
wing-cases,  which  are  really  the  anterior  wings,  whence  the  name 
of  the  order ;  while  the  posterior  wings  are  out  of  all  proportion 
large,  and  in  repose  close  up  over  the  abdominal  segments  in 
longitudinal  folds  like  a  fan.  The  tarsi  are  four-jointed,  and 
instead  of  claws  are  furnished  with  soft  cushions,  which  enable 
the  insect  to  cling  firmly  to  the  abdomen  of  the  bee. 

After  being  bandied  about  from  one  order  to  another,  they  are 
now  in  Sharp's  Catalogue  resting  among  the  Heteromerous 
Coleoptera,  and  following  immediately  after  the  Mordellidae, 
How  long  they  will  remain  there,  who  can  tell  ? 

Having  said  so  much  about  their  structural  appearance,  the 
next  thing  is  to  know  when  and  where  to  look  for  them.  As  they 
are  parasitic  upon  the  wild  bee,  they  must,  of  course,  be  sought 
for  upon  their  victim.  But  they  will  not  be  found  upon  all  wild 
bees ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  very  limited  in  their  selection. 
Why,  we  cannot  tell ;  but  so  it  is.  The  species  most  frequently 
found  Stylopised  is  Andrena  atriceps^  though  several  others  of  the 
same  genus  come  in  for  a  small  share  of  their  favour.  The  Atri- 
ceps  is  abundant  throughout  the  London  district,  and  is  particu- 
larly plentiful  on  Hampstead  Heath.  It  is  one  of  the  very  early 
spring  bees,  and  may  be  seen  on  the  wing  about  the  first  week  in 
April,  if  not  earlier,  so  that  entomologists  who  wish  to  add  this 
interesting  and  peculiar  insect  to  their  collections  must  lose  no 
time  in  seeking  for  it  \  and  I  may  also  add,  that  if  they  want 
specimens  of  the  male  Stylops^  they  must  be  very  early  in  the 


110  STYLOPS. 

field,  for  they  make  their  escape  from  the  body  of  the  bee  almost 
as  soon  as  the  bee  begins  its  flight.  The  brighter  the  morning  the 
earlier  it  will  be  out.  From  9  to  11  a.m.  is  the  best  time,  and 
after  the  turn  of  the  day  it  would  be  almost  useless  to  attempt  to 
find  it,  unless  the  weather  were  dull  and  showery. 

There  is  a  very  interesting  record  in  "  The  Entomologist's 
Monthly  Magazine"  of  the  capture  of  a  number  of  Atriceps, 
stylopised,  at  Hampstead  Heath,  by  Mr.  Enoch,  on  the  5th  and 
6th  of  April,  1875.  On  those  two  days,  he  captured  46  specimens 
of  that  bee,  and  from  these  he  obtained  no  less  than  59  specimens 
of  Sty  lops — 19  males  and  40  females.  These  were  all  afterwards 
bred  from  the  bees  in  captivity,  some  of  which,  he  tells  us,  did  not 
emerge  for  20  days ;  a  very  long  time  to  keep  captive  bees 
alive.  On  these  two  days  he  only  saw  one  Stylops  on  the 
wing,  and  his  description  of  its  flight  was  as  follows  : — "A 
little  before  11.30,  I  saw  something  flying  in  a  very  peculiar 
manner  over  a  broom-bush.  I  captured  it  with  my  net ;  it  proved 
to  be  a  male  Stylops.  I  think  I  should  now  know  a  Stylops  on 
the  wing  the  moment  I  saw  it.  Its  flight  is  different  to  anything 
else  I  have  ever  seen — a  very  peculiar,  unsteady  flight,  something 
like  an  ephemeron,  or  what  I  should  call  an  uncomfortable  flight 
up  and  down,  this  way  and  that  way ;  in  fact,  at  all  angles,  not 
keeping  in  one  direction  apparently  for  more  than  6  or  7  inches." 

Another  entomologist  tells  us,  that  after  capturing  one  on  the 
wing,  he  on  another  occasion  saw  about  20  flying,  but  they  were 
so  high  from  the  ground  he  could  only  capture  half-a-dozen.  The 
little  animals  are  exceedingly  graceful  in  their  flight,  taking  long 
sweeps  as  if  carried  along  by  a  gentle  breeze,  and  occasionally 
hovering  at  a  few  inches  from  the  ground.  Their  expanse  of  wing 
and  mode  of  flight  gave  them  a  very  different  appearance  to  any 
other  insect.  When  captured,  they  are  exceedingly  active, 
running  up  and  down  the  sides  of  the  bottle  in  which  they  are 
confined,  and  moving  their  wings  and  antennse  very  rapidly.  Mr. 
Dale  also  tells  us  that  Stylops  flies  with  an  undulating  or  vacci- 
lating  motion,  and  one  he  caught  ran  up  and  down,  keeping  its 
wings  in  motion,  and  making  a  considerable  buzz  or  hum,  as  loud 
as  a  Sesia.     It  twisted  its  rather  long  tail  about,  and  twined  it  up 


STYLOPS.  Ill 

like  a  Staphylinus.  He  put  it  under  a  glass,  and  placed  it  in  the 
sun,  where  it  became  quite  furious  in  its  confinement,  and  never 
ceased  running  about  for  two  hours.  The  elytra,  or  processes, 
were  kept  in  quick  vibration,  as  well  as  the  wings.  It  buzzed 
against  the  side  of  the  glass,  touching  it  with  its  head,  and 
tumbled  about  on  its  back. 

So  much  for  its  appearance  on  the  wing.  Now,  how  do  we 
know  when  a  bee  is  stylopised  ?  If,  upon  examining  the  upper 
segments  of  the  abdomen  of  the  bee,  we  find  a  slight  incrustation 
or  protuberance  on  the  fourth  segment ;  that  is  a  sure  indication 
of  the  fact.  Kirby,  who  first  noticed  this  protuberance,  mistook 
it  for  an  Acarus,  and  in  order  to  examine  it  more  minutely  endea- 
voured to  disengage  it  with  a  pin.  "What  was  my  astonishment," 
he  says,  "when  I  drew  forth  from  the  body  of  the  bee  a  white, 
fleshy  larva  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long."  This  white,  fleshy  larva 
is  now  known  to  be  the  female  Stylops.  She  is  simply  a  white, 
fleshy  maggot,  without  the  least  trace  of  legs  or  wings,  furnished 
only  with  a  flattened,  horny,  anterior  extremity,  which  enables  her 
to  push  through  the  segments  of  the  bee's  abdomen,  and  just 
below  this  horny  plate  is  a  transverse  aperture,  through  which  the 
male  fecundates  the  eggs,  and  afterwards  the  young  larvae  emerge. 
The  eggs  can  be  seen  through  the  body  of  the  female,  and  the 
eggs  are  hatched  in  this  situation.  After  having  extracted  this 
larva  or  female,  Kirby  attempted  to  extract  a  second,  but  now  his 
astonishment  was  greatly  intensified,  when,  instead  of  getting  out 
another  larva,  the  skin  burst  as  he  was  extracting  it,  and  a  head 
as  black  as  ink,  with  large,  staring  eyes,  and  antennae  consisting  of 
two  branches,  broke  forth,  and  moved  itself  from  side  to  side.  It 
looked  like  a  little  imp  of  darkness,  just  emerging  from  the 
infernal  regions.  This  was,  of  course,  the  male,  as  the  first  was 
the  female  Stylops. 

The  number  of  eggs  laid  by  the  female  is  very  considerable. 
The  little  larvae,  when  first  hatched,  are  hexapods,  and  very  active 
little  creatures,  quickly  making  their  way  out  of  their  mother's 
body  by  the  transverse  aperture  mentioned  above.  Smith  tells  us 
he  has  several  times  bred  these  larvae  by  keeping  the  infested  bees 
in  confinement,  and  supplying  them  daily  with  fresh  flowers,  such 


112  STYLOPS. 

as  the  bees  frequent.  If  the  bee  is  examined  daily,  it  is  probable 
that  within  eight  or  ten  days  she  will  appear  as  if  her  abdomen 
were  covered  with  dust.  Examine  this  with  a  microscope,  and  in 
all  probability  she  will  be  covered  with  an  innumerable  quantity  of 
minute  animals.  These  are  the  larvae  of  Stylops.  At  this  stage 
of  existence,  their  four  anterior  legs  are  each  furnished  with  a  pad 
(like  the  perfect  male),  by  means  of  which  they  can  run  freely 
over  the  abdomen  of  the  bee.  Now,  as  the  bee  flies  from  flower 
to  flower  to  feed,  some  of  these  little  creatures  get  brushed  off 
with  the  petals,  and  so  get  left  behind,  until  other  bees  come  and 
visit  them,  when  they  attach  themselves  to  the  next  comer,  and  so 
get  carried  to  the  nest.  Here  they  attach  themselves  to  the  larva 
of  the  bee,  and  bury  themselves  in  it  by  degrees,  soon  losing  their 
legs,  and  becoming  now  maggot-like  creatures,  and  remain  feeding 
on  the  substance  of  their  victim  till  both  arrive  at  maturity. 
Judging  from  the  multitudes  of  larvae  produced  by  each  female 
Stylops^  and  the  rarity  of  the  perfect  insect,  immense  numbers — in 
fact,  the  majority — of  these  larvae  must  perish,  as  generally  only 
one,  and  seldom  more  than  two,  are  found  to  infest  the  same  bee. 

The  last  peculiarity  to  be  noticed  is  that  these  parasites  do  not, 
like  the  Chrysididce  and  Ichneumontdce,  destroy  the  victims  on 
which  they  feed,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  larva  which  nourishes 
the  parasites  undergoes  its  metamorphoses  in  the  regular  way,  and 
the  bee  comes  forth  to  all  appearance  perfect,  with  its  enemy  still 
in  its  abdomen ;  and  as  it  flies  about  and  feeds  exactly  like  other 
bees,  the  only  important  injury  inflicted  being  the  prevention  of 
the  development  of  the  generative  organs,  and  the  consequent 
sterility  of  the  bee.  On  this  account,  in  all  probability,  the 
appearance  of  the  bee  is  somewhat  altered,  the  colour  of  the 
pubescence  undergoes  a  change,  and,  as  a  consequence,  stylopised 
bees  have  been  added  to  the  lists  as  distinct  species.  The  atten- 
tion that  has  been  bestowed  on  this  subject  lately,  and  the 
searching  examinations  that  have  taken  place,  will  probably  cause 
all  such  to  be  removed.  It  is  now  well  known  that  stylopisation 
causes  the  pubescence  in  brown  bees  to  become  grey,  and  ren- 
ders the  males  more  like  the  females  in  colour  and  appearance. 

The  bees  most  frequently  attacked  by  the  Stylops^  and  which 


HALF-AN-HOUR  AT  THE  MICROSCOPE.  113 

are  most  likely  to  be  met  with  in  the  south  of  London,  are 
A?idrena  atriceps^  A.  Trimmerana^  A.  nigroce?iea,  and  A.  Afzeliella. 
The  first  three  are  very  generally  distributed  and  often  abundant. 


EXPLANATION   OF    PLATE    XIII. 


Fig.   1. — Stylops,  (?sp.)  male. 
2. — Ditto,  female. 

3. — Ditto,  in  its  early  larval  state. 

All  very  much  magnified. 


1balf*=an:^1bour  at  tbe  fiDicroecope, 

Mttb  /IIM\  Xlutfeu  Mest,  ^.%S.,  ff.lR./llb^S.,  etc 


sting  of  Scorpion.— Just  at  the  outlet  of  the  canal  for  the 
poison,  some  small  masses  are  present.  With  the  highest  avail- 
able power  and  the  polariscope,  my  friend,  A.  Nicholson,  proved 
to  my  satisfaction  that  these  were  crystals  of  Oxalic,  or  (as  I 
think)  some  Isomeric  Acid,  infinitely  more  deadly.  Correlating 
Lewis  G.  Mills's  observations  of  crystals  at  the  outlet  of  the 
poison-canal  in  the  falces  of  a  Spider  found  by  him,  I  think  it 
not  unlikely  that  in  hot,  dry  seasons,  similar  crystals  might  be 
found  in  the  stings  of  Nettles,  of  Loasce,  and  other  urticating 
plants.  Who  of  our  members  will  undertake  such  an  inquiry  ? 
To  obtain  the  requisite  knowledge  of  what  to  examine,  botanical 
text-books  would,  of  course,  have  to  be  consulted.  The  fangs  of 
Poison-serpents  might  be  expected  to  yield  similar  crystals — ano- 
ther most  interesting  inquiry  for  those  who  will,  to  take  up. 

Naphthaline. — The  contributor  would  oblige  more  than  one 
country  member  by  a  few  particulars  as  to  what  this  substance  is, 
whence  obtained,  and  where  to  be  procured.  It  is  considered  by 
Prof.  Williamson,  of  Manchester,  to  furnish  the  very  best  of  all 
substances  for  imbedding  delicate  microscopic  subjects  in,  pre- 
vious to  cutting  sections.  The  crystals  are  both  pretty  and 
interesting.  The  li?ies  of  crystalline  deposit  seen  in  parts  are  due 
to  minute  scratches  on  the  surface  of  the  2;lass.     How  delicate 


114  HALF-AN-HOUR 

the  play  of  elective  affinity  between  the  two  edges  of  a  scratch  ! 
Exquisite  mountings  might  be  obtained  by  delicate  geometrical 
patterns  cut  with  the  diamond-writing  machine.  Who  will  try 
this  ? 

Ophiocoma  neglecta. — Members  visiting  Southend,  Margate, 
Ramsgate,  Deal,  Dover,  etc.,  and  probably  any  of  our  sandy  sea- 
shores, would  find  a  search  for  these  richly  rewarded.  The 
Echmoder^nata  generally  furnish  no  end  of  instructive  and 
beautiful  preparations.  To  know  what  to  look  for,  and  how  to 
look,  read  Forbes'  "  British  Star-Fishes,"  and  then  set  to  work. 

Calcedony  is  a  type  of  a  good  class  of  objects,  from  which 
much  interest  and  instruction  are  to  be  derived,  namely — as  illus- 
trating microscopically  the  intimate  structure  of  geological  and 
mineralogical  specimens.  The  physical  conditions  under  which 
they  were  formed  present  problems  of  the  grandest  order.  David 
Forbes,  whose  writings  are  unfortunately  scattered  through  various 
periodicals  ("  Popular  Science  Review"  and  "Proceedings  of  the 
Geological  Society  "  are  the  most  accessible),  is  the  pioneer  and 
almost  the  only  worker.  I  must  warn  my  fellow-members,  how- 
ever, that  such  slides  are  at  the  present  very  difficult  to  prepare, 
from  their  extreme  hardness,  and  most  of  us  will  prefer  paying  a 
visit  to  the  opticians,  and  choosing  for  ourselves  an  illustrative 
series  from  their  admirable  collections. 

Those  who  wish  to  learn  about  Calcedony  must  read  J.  Morris 
on  "  The  Gems  and  Precious  Stones  of  Great  Britain,"  in  "  Popu- 
lar Science  Review,"  April,  1868,  p.  123. 

Seeds  of  Typha  latifolia  have  evidently  been  mounted  by  a 
novice,  from  a  specimen  in  excellent  condition.  One,  two,  or,  at 
most,  three  seeds  should  have  been  picked  out  carefully  with  the 
forceps,  and  laid  side  by  side,  instead  of  the  confused  mass  here 
presented  to  the  eye,  from  which  it  is  tedious,  even  for  an  expert^ 
to  gain  the  facts  intended  to  be  displayed.  The  specimen  is  a 
highly  interesting  one.  The  part  above  the  elongate  oval  seed  is 
the  style,  or  remanet  of  the  pistil,  and  would  probably  furnish  a 
capital  subject  for  observation  of  the  descent  of  the  pollen-tubes. 
The  fruit  is  elevated  on  a  long,  slender  stalk  (PI.  XIV.,  Fig.  7), 
probably  an  elongate  disc.  The  hairs  at  the  base  represent  the 
perianth  ;  they  are  about  36  in  number,  and  may  be  considered 
as  composed  of  three  whorls,  of  12  in  a  whorl,  equivalents  of 
petals,  sepals,  and  bracts.  The  genus  is  closely  related  to  the 
Aracecz  (type,  Arwn  maculatiim^  "  Lords  and  Ladies  "),  and  to  the 
Screw  Pines.  Every  part  contains  abundance  of  prismatic 
raphides.  I  should  like  to  see  fruit  of  the  Lesser  Bulrush  {Typha 
All gustif olid) ;  the  plant  is  of  occasional  occurrence  throughout 


AT  THE  MICROSCOPE.  115 

the  country.  Sowerby  describes  and  figures  a  third  species, 
Typha  minor,  as  found  in  Britain.  This  it  would  be  very  inter- 
esting to  see — no  matter,  in  a  micro-scientific  point  of  view, 
whether  "  doubtfully  British  '"'  or  no. 

Head  of  Cockroach;  Gizzard  of  Cockroach.— I  place  these 
together  as  types  of  a  most  important  class  of  slides — such, 
namely,  as  illustrate  well  the  structure  of  the  common  objects  by 
which  we  are  surrounded.  It  is  of  far  more  essential  importance 
to  us  that  we  should  be  familiar  with  the  objects  connected  with 
our  daily  life,  than  with  such  as  we  may  see  but  at  rare  intervals, 
and  comparatively  few  ever  at  all.  The  same  watchful  Providence 
and  the  same  beneficent  design  are  exhibited  in  the  homeliest  as  in 
the  rarest  objects.  And  if  we  act  "  Her  Majesty's  Commis- 
sioner on  Education,"  to  our  consciences,  how  little  is  there  we 
know  of  even  such  things  as  the  Lesser  House-Fly,  the  Cock- 
roach, or  the  Cricket !  Know^  that  is,  in  the  sense  of  real 
insight  into  their  life-history — from  the  egg  to  the  grave — as  com- 
pared with  what  we  might  gain  by  a  moderate  exercise  of  pains 
and  thought.  The  lessons  to  be  learnt  from  them  are  full  of  as 
profound  interest  and  true  wisdom,  as  from  any  study  that  man 
can  pursue.  What  is  the  history,  from  the  egg  to  maturity,  of 
this,  that,  and  the  other  ?  let  us  ask  ourselves  ;  and  when  we 
really  do  know  all  that  is  to  be  learnt  by  the  microscope  about 
them,  we  shall  have  acquired  powers  of  observation  and  reasoning, 
and  a  mass  of  accurate  facts,  vrhich  will  astonish  ourselves  and 
others  as  well,  and  be  able  to  add  largely  to  the  stores  of  commu- 
nicable knowledge  to  be  found  as  yet  only  in  books. 

To  the  Gizzard  we  must  accord  a  unanimous  welcome.  It  is 
so  interesting  to  see  the  mill  of  one  of  these  atrociously  voracious 
creatures.  And  in  its  simplicity,  it  furnishes  so  good  a  key  to  the 
more  complicated  forms  met  with  in  some  others  of  the  Insect 
tribe. 

In  preparing  it,  what  do  we  find  ?  Why,  there's  first  next  the 
mouth  a  capacious  thin-walled  bag,  the  Crop,  destined  principally 
for  the  reception  of  food.  And  how  large  it  is  in  the  vegetable- 
feeders,  the  earwig  and  the  grasshopper  to  wit  !  Then  we  come 
to  the  Gizzard,  which  may  be  likened  to  a  pudding-bag,  of  some- 
what triangular  outline  (see  PI.  XIV.,  Fig.  8).  a,  End  of  Crop  ; 
b,  Gizzard,  in  profile  ;  r,  CEsophagus,  hexagonal  in  section  (see 
Fig.  9),  with  six  powerful  teeth,  the  points  towards  the  wide 
receptive  apex  pointing  inwards.  Between  each  of  these  is  a 
tendon  of  a  fan  shape.  These  serve  to  give  strength  to  the  walls, 
and  pohits  d'appui  for  circular  bands  of  muscular  fibre  ;  outside 
these  cross-muscles  are  longitudinal  ones,  very  short  and  strong. 
By  their  combined  action  the  mill  is  set  in  motion  and  kept  going 


116  HALF-AN-HOUR 

(the  food  being  passed  on  as  it  becomes  reduced)  to  the  first  or 
cesophagal  portion  of  the  intestine.  Till  this  slide  met  my  eye,  I 
had  never  seen  any  other  preparation  of  the  structure  than  one  I 
made  amongst  my  first  attempts,  now  some  30  years  ago.  Yet  it 
makes  a  most  interesting,  pleasing,  and  instructive  slide.  It 
shrivels  rather  when  mounted  dry.  The  Gizzards  of  insects, 
taken  up  as  a  systematic  study,  will  furnish  endless  sources  of 
instruction  and  delight.  Little  has  been  published  on  the  sub- 
ject.    Who  will  go  in  for  them  ? 

Cercopis  sanguinolenta  is  a  fine  example  of  the  class  of 
slides  to  which  it  belongs — entire  insects.  These,  though  not 
altogether  satisfactory  to  the  student,  are  highly  attractive,  inter- 
esting, and  calculated  to  bring  into  the  ranks  of  workers  with  the 
microscope  some  who  may  have  previously  given  such  subjects 
little  thought. 

The  antennas,  three-jointed,  should  be  carefully  examined,  the 
facetted  eyes,  the  forehead,  the  wings,  the  limbs,  with  their  power- 
ful claws  and  the  terminal  suckers,  each  having  a  tactile  hair 
distad  in  the  centre.  The  robustness  of  the  limbs,  the  number 
and  form  of  the  tarsal  joints,  the  curious  and  complex  spurs  on 
the  outer  edge  of  the  posterior  tibiae,  also  at  the  distal  ends  of 
the  same  joints,  altertiately  fixed  and  moveable^  the  spurs  at  the 
extremity  of  the  first  two  tarsal  joints  in  the  same  fimbs.  All 
these  having  a  long  tactile  hair  on  the  inner  edge  near  their  extre- 
mity, these,  with  the  spiracles,  are  the  most  noticeable  facts  to  be 
learnt  from  this  valuable  slide.  The  parts  of  the  mouth  are  not 
well  seen,  but  one  of  the  outer  pair  of  four  set^e,  (a  modified 
mandible,)  may  be  clearly  made  out;  also,  the  three-jointed  sheath 
— case  for  surgical  instruments,  it  may  be  called — or  "promuscis." 

I  had  almost  omitted  to  call  attention  to  the  fine  set  of  saws 
(two  pairs)  and  their  sheath,  so  well  displayed.  In  considering 
these,  however,  it  should  be  remembered  that  they  have  been 
displaced,  the  natural  position  being  (for  one  side)^  as  roughly 
shown  in  Diagram,  PI.  XIV.,    Fig.    10. 

Ophion  luteus  (PI.  XIV.). — This  slide  requires  several  hours 
to  master  the  details  of  structure  with  which  we  are  presented  in 
it.  I  can  only  glance  at  them  by  a  slight  enumeration  as  follows  : 
— Tongue,  parts  of  the  mouth,  antennae,  wings  with  their  hooks, 
comb-like  claws,  and  ovipositor.  The  tongue  may  be  advan- 
tageously compared  with  that  of  a  wasp,  and  is  strikingly  different 
from  that  of  bees.  The  antennae  show  structure,  described  by 
Dr.  J.  Braxton  Hicks,  which  he  supposes  to  be,  from  their 
structure,  an  acoustic  apparatus,  and  on  very  good  analogical 
grounds,  it  seems  to  me.  The  paper  will  be  found  in  a  volume  of 
"  Linnaean  Transactions  "  of  a  few  years  back,  and  marks  a  decided 
advance  in  the  knowledge  of  the  subject. 


Joiirml  of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3, PI. 14. 


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AT  THE  MICROSCOPE,  117 

How  very  different,  again,  are  the  hooks  on  the  wings  from 
those  of  the  great  Humble-Bee,  marking  an  insect  of  feeble 
flight !  I  have  not  unfrequently  seen  them  in  the  autumn,  or  even  in 
sunny  days  in  the  winter,  hawking  over  the  common  here,  in 
search  of  a  suitable  nidus  for  oviposition  :  this  is  the  naked- 
skinned  caterpillar.  By  means  of  the  serrated  claws,  the  frigh- 
tened creature  is  held,  notwithstanding  all  its  writhings,  till  the 
egg  is  laid  in  its  body  :  the  eggs  are  described  as  being  of  a 
singular  form,  somewhat  bean-shaped,  as  Fig.  ii,  and  attached 
near  one  end  to  a  long,  slender,  and  curved  peduncle,  by  which 
they  are  attached — unlike  the  majority  of  the  eggs  of  this  family — 
to  the  surface  of  the  body  of  the  larva  of  Ceriira  veniila  (the  Puss 
Moth).  When  the  eggs  are  hatched,  the  larva  remains  in  this 
situation,  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen  being  retained  within  the 
shell  of  the  tgg^  as  in  Fig.  12,  whereby  they  are  enabled  to  suck 
the  juices  of  their  victim  (Westwood,  Mod.  Intr.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  145). 
I  have  never  been  fortunate  enough  to  see  this,  but  hope  E.  L.  or 
some  of  our  entomologists  will  tell  us  more  about  it.  It  appears 
there  are  five  described  species.  The  singular,  somewhat  curved 
mark  on  the  eyes,  shaped  like  a  hollow  club,  differs  from  any- 
thing I  remember  to  have  noticed  elsewhere,  and  it  seems  to  me 
difficult  to  explain  the  meaning  of  it. 

Pro-Leg  of  Larva  of  Puss-Moth.— A  remarkably  fine  and 
interesting  specimen,  and  derives  additional  value  from  its 
having  been  prepared  and  named  by  an  entomologist.  The 
notes  accompanying  it,  too,  are  exactly  the  sort  of  thing  I  am  so 
desirous  our  members  should  give  when  putting  their  specimens 
into  the  boxes.  The  contributor  has  exactly  hit  my  idea  of  what 
is  wanted  in  these  notes — anything  throwing  light  on  the  subject 
of  the  slides.  We  are  just  naturalists  who  make  use  of  the 
microscope  in  our  investigations.  The  graphic  description  of  the 
Puss-Moth  Caterpillar's  tenacious  clinging  to  whatever  it  may  be 
upon  is  rendered  clear  enough  on  careful  investigation  of  this  slide.* 

It  may  be  interesting  to  call  attention  to  the  different  modifi- 
cations of  hairs  presented  in  the  specimen  for  different  purposes. 
There  are,  on  the  general  surface  of  the  skin,  small,  triangular, 
sharply-pointed  "  scah-hairsJ'  Then  there  are  also  about  nine 
spine-like  hairs^  whose  use  may  be  considered  to  be  chiefly  for 
protection,  short,  strong,  and  stout.  In  addition  to  these,  and 
above  them,  are  a  number  long,  flexible,  translucent,  whip-like, 
which  agree  in  these  characteristics  with  hairs  whose  recognised 
use  is  to  inform  the  insect  of  the  nature  of  the  objects  with  which 
it  comes  into  contact — ^"  sensory  hairs."  And,  lastly,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  prove  that  the  powerful  claws  themselves  are  but  hairs, 

*  These  notes  will  appear  in  our  next  part. — Ed. 

K 


118  HALF-AN-HOUR  AT   THE  MICROSCOPE. 

enlarged,  greatly  curved  at  their  tips,  strengthened  with  much 
chitinous  material,  as  predicated  by  their  deep  colour — "  claw,  or 
clasping  hairs."  One  of  the  most  curious  points  shown  in  the 
specimen  seems  to  myself  to  be  the  thin  fold  of  skin,  crenated  at 
the  edges  in  a  number  of  indentations,  corresponding  to  the 
claws,  and  which  serves  to  cover  them  like  a  veil.  It  requires  rather 
a  high  power  and  some  care  to  see  this  ;  but  of  its  existence  there  is 
no  question,  though  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive  for  what  special 
purpose  it  can  be  required. 

TuFFEN  West. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XIV. 


Details  of  Ophion  luteum. 
Fig.  1. — Eye,  showing  dark,  club-shaped  mark. 

2. — Tropin: — m. ,  mandible;  mx. ,  maxilla;  mxp. ,  maxillary 
palpus  ;  Ihr. ,  labrum  ;  lb. ,  labium  ;  Ibp. ,  labial  palpus. 

3. — The  wings  of  one  side,  showing  areolation,  position  of  the 
hooks,  and  of  the  thickened  portion  of  fore-wing,  on  which 
they  work. 

4. — a,  6,  the  hooks  shown  in  different  positions,  eight  in  number  on 
one  wing,  nine  on  the  other. 

5. — Abdomen,  the  segments  numbered  consecutively:  d.,  the 
dorsal  ;  v.,  ventral  portions.  Seven  pairs  of  spiracles  are 
seen,  the  barbed  portions  of  the  ovipositor,  and  their  sheath. 

6. — Last  joint  of  the  tarsus  from  the  intermediate  leg  of  the 
right  side.  The  fleshy  organ  borne  on  a  pedicle  between  the 
strongly  pectinated  claws  is  a  sucker,  of  a  type  specially 
characteristic  of  the  Hymenoptera,  as  Bees,  Wasps,  Ants, 
Ichneumons,  Saw-Flies,  etc.  Two  long  vibrissse  on  each  claw 
form  a  noticeable  feature  here. 

11. — Egg  of  Ophion  luteum  on  long  curved  peduncle,  by  which  it 
is  attached  to  the  body  of  the  larva  of  the  Puss- Moth. 

12. — The  egg  hatched,  and  still  retaining  the  extremity  of  the 
body  of  the  larva. 


>> 


»j 


>> 


>» 


}> 


>> 


i) 


,,    7. — Seed  of  Typha  latifolia. 

,,     8. — Gizzard  of  Cockroach: — a,  end  of  the  crop  ;  h,  the  gizzard, 
in  profile  ;  c,  commencement  of  the  ossophagus. 

,,     9. — Gizzard  of  Cockroach,  as  seen  from  above. 

10.  — Diagrammatic  sketch  of  saws  of  Cercopis  sanguinolenta :  a, 
one  of  the  inner  pairs  of  large  ovipositors  ;  6,  one  of  the 
outer  pairs  of  saws,  finely  toothed  ;  c,  the  sheath. 


)) 


[119] 


Selecteb  IRotes  from  tbc  Society's 

mote*Booft0. 


Naphthaline  is  a  white,  flaky-looking  crystal,  which  accumulates 
in  gas-pipes  (to  my  great  annoyance),  gradually  choking  them  up. 
It  can  be  procured  at  the  gas-works  when  some  of  the  periodical 
cleaning  takes  place. 

Dissolved  in  mineral  naptha  and  crystallised  on  a  slide  by  eva- 
poration, it  forms  an  interesting  object.  I  find  difficulty  in 
mounting  it.  Castor-oil  dissolves  it  instantly ;  glycerine  does  so 
slowly. 

Richard  Smith. 

Naphthaline  is  described  in  "  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia  "  as 
being  easily  and  abundantly  produced  from  the  last  portion  of  the 
distillate  of  coal-tar,"  crystallising  in  large,  thin,  rhombic  plates, 
having  a  pearly  lustre. 

R.  H.  Moore. 


Chalcedony. — I  see  little  structural  difference  between  Chalce- 
dony arnd  Siberian  Agate,  but  am  not  surprised  at  this,  as  I  learn 
from  Tomlinson's  "  Arts  and  Manufactures "  that  the  chemical 
composition  of  agate,  chameleon,  chalcedony,  onyx,  bloodstone,  sard, 
moss-agate,  and  many  others,  is  identical.  In  the  slide  before  us, 
the  discs  are  nearly  perfect,  and  justify  the  old  name,  viz., 
*'  Fortification  Agate."  The  Siberian  agate  is  more  wavy  in 
appearance,  and  the  centre  is  broken  up,  as  it  were,  by  gritty- 
looking  particles,  but  is  a  more  brilliant  object  under  the  polari- 
scope. 

H.  E.  Freeman. 


We  have  certainly  advanced  since  the  days  of  Pignelius, 
who  remarks  on  Chalcedony,  in  connection  with  Rev.  xxi.  19, 
that  the  "  stone  hath  the  colour  of  a  pallid  lamp,  shines  in 
the  open  air,  but  is  dark  in  a  house,  carmot  be  ait  (!),  and  has 
powers  of  attraction."  What  would  he  have  said  to  the  section 
before  us  ? 

E.  E.  Jarrett. 


120  SELECTED  NOTES  FROM 

i 

The  specimen  before  us  is  the  most  regular  in  its  crystalli- 
sation I  have  ever  seen.  I  think  the  variations  in  crystalline 
form  found  in  many  of  these  nearly  pure  forms  of  Silex  are 
produced  by  the  varying  rate  at  which  they  have  cooled,  doubtless 
combined  with  other  causes.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the 
various  modifications  exhibited  in  them  may  be  produced  in  many 
mineral  salts  by  variations  in  the  amount  of  heat  used,  and  the 
rapidity  or  slowness  of  cooling,  as  I  have  personally  found.  It  is 
to  the  prevention  of  natural  crystallisation  that  so  many  of  our 
pretty  polariscopic  slides  owe  their  character.  I  know  much  may 
be  said  against  the  igneous  origin  of  Chalcedony,  and  that  I  have 
taken  for  granted,  both,  that  it  is  a  modified  crystalline  form,  and 
produced  in  part  by  heat ;  but  I  think  what  I  have  seen,  (and 
doubtless  other  members  who  may  have  tried  their  hands  on 
crystallising  mineral  salts  have  seen  the  same,)  warrants  the  suppo- 
sition that  agate,  in  many  of  its  forms,  is  the  result  of  crystallisa- 
tion, modified  by  variations  of  heat  and  other  surrounding  con- 
ditions. 

D.  Moore. 


Antennae  of  Cockroach. — I  have  counted  74  or  75  joints  in 
each  antenna. 

R.  H.  Moore. 


Tracheal  System  of  Caterpillar.— Quekett's  method  of  pre- 
paring these  objects  with  acetic  acid  I  have  found  very  un- 
satisfactory. My  slide  was  prepared  thus : — Having  cut  off  the 
head  of  the  caterpillar,  and  made  an  incision  down  the  back,  I 
placed  it  in  a  solution  of  sub-carbonate  of  potash  and  lime  (Z/^. 
Fof.  would  do).  In  three  or  four  days  the  body  had  become  of  a 
hard,  cheesy  consistency.  It  was  then  easy  to  turn  it  out  of  the 
skin  with  a  blunt  knife.  Boiling  in  potash  for  a  few  hours  dis- 
solved the  mass  (which,  by  the  bye,  I  had  gently  crushed),  and 
the  trachea  was  left  floating  in  the  liquid.  After  washing  well,  it 
was  floated  on  to  the  slide. 

Thos.  Lisle. 


Trachea  of  Caterpillar.— Mr.  Lisle's  process,  as  described 
above,  is  certainly  the  best  and  easiest.  But  I  do  not  think  that 
boihng  is  necessary,  as  I  have  procured  good  specimens  by  steep- 
ing only  in  Z/^.  Pof.  (strong  solution)  for  four  or  five  days.  After 
that  take  the  insect  out  of  the  solution,  place  it  in  a  shallow  dish 


THE  society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  121 

of  water,  make  an  incision  along  the  back  of  the  insect  (end  to 
end),  and  then  gently  wash  out  the  inside.  By  doing  this,  you  not 
only  get  the  tracheal  system,  but  also  the  skin,  which  you  can 
mount,  whole  or  in  parts.  If  you  wish,  you  can  stain  the  tracheae 
with  carmine  or  logwood,  but  I  have  not  met  with  very  good 
results. 

C.  C.  BosE. 


Feet  of  Blow-Fly.— I  insert  this  slide,  thinking  it  will  probably 
incite  members  to  look  up  the  subject  of  Feet  of  Insects.  It  is 
quite  clear,  from  the  vast  array  of  hairs  on  the  feet  of  Diodria 
riifipes,  which  is  in  the  same  box,  that  the  creature  cannot  use 
them  as  "suckers,"  and  if  anyone  will  examine  the  feet  of  the 
common  house-fly,  I  think  they  will  be  convinced  that  it  does  not 
walk  on  glass  by  any  sort  of  atmospheric  pressure.  Such  crea- 
tures can  walk  as  easily  in  the  exhausted  glass  of  an  air-pump  as 
in  a  common  tumbler.  But  put  them,  first,  into  a  box  containing 
any  very  fine  powder — say,  carbonate  of  magnesia — they  will  be 
unable  to  walk  up  any  glass  at  all.  Watch  them,  and  they  will  be 
seen  to  wipe  their  feet  in  their  own  peculiar  way.  The  insects 
know  when  the  very  sticky  hairs  on  their  feet  are  clogged  with 
dust  and  cleanse  them  duly.  But  there  are  insects  which  have 
regular  sucker-feet ;  of  these  I  now  say  nothing.  An  observer 
will  soon  notice  that  the  hairy  part,  which  I  will  call  the  boss  or 
brush,  is  sometimes  of  considerable  size  and  length,  and  the  crea- 
ture— unless  there  were  a  special  apparatus  for  the  purpose — 
could  no  more  put  the  pad  down  flat  than  we  can  hold  out  a 
newspaper  level  by  holding  it  by  one  corner;  it  would  fall  thus  T, 

instead  of  remaining  thus  .     To  effect  the  desired  end, 

i.e.^  of  keeping  the  brush  flat — there  is  a  variety  of  contrivances, 
and  into  these  our  members  will  do  well  to  pry.  In  the  feet  of 
Diodria  may  be  seen  two  rigid  rods  ;  in  the  Blow- Fly  there  is  an 
elaborate  appearance,  consisting  of  strong  ribs  and  a  number  of 
minute  rods  proceeding  therefrom.  To  describe  much  more 
would  be  to  deprive  microscopists  of  a  great  pleasure.  I  will  only 
say  that  the  foot  of  the  Wasp,  Bee,  and  Hornet  puzzled  me  for 
years.  I  never  could  make  a  satisfactor}'  slide.  A  friend  at  last 
gave  me  one,  in  which  the  pad  was  unpacked. 

Thos.  Inman. 


Feet  of  Insects. — The  Diodria^  alluded  to  by  Dr.  Inman,  is 
mounted  in  glycerine  jelly,  and  it  is  this  which  causes  the  pulvelli 
to  show  so  well.  I  believe  that  the  pads  of  insects'  feet  are  of 
glandular  structure,  and  that  they  secrete  a  mucus  (like  that  of 


122  SALMON   DISEASE. 

spiders'  webs,  etc.),  which  hardens  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and 
that  when  the  fly  wishes  to  detach  its  foot  from  the  surface  to 
which  it  may  be  adhering,  as  in  the  act  of  walking,  it  re-dissolves 
this  hardened  mucus  by  emitting  a  fresh  portion  from  the  glands. 
The  hair-like  bodies  with  which  the  pads  are  covered  are  probably 
hollow  tubes — />.,  ducts  to  convey  the  mucus. 

F.  J.  Allen. 


TLbc  Carlisle  /llMcroscoptcal  Society* 


Salmon  ©ieea^c* 

By  Dr.  Lediard. 


THE  ordinary  monthly  meeting  of  the  Carlisle  Microscopical 
Society  was  held  on  Friday  night,  January  4th,  1884,  in 
the  Young  Men's  Hall,  Fisher  Street,  when  Dr.  Lediard, 
the  Vice-President,  read  an  interesting  paper  on   "  The  Salmon 
Disease,"  of  which  the  following  is  a  report : — 

The  Vice-President  said  the  salmon  disease  was  especially 
worthy  of  their  consideration.  It  had  even  claims  upon  any 
Microscopical  Society,  and  more  especially  this  Society,  inasmuch 
as  it  was  a  disease  which  was  present  in  the  Eden,  and  had  been 
so  since  1878.  As  far  as  he  was  aware,  no  clear  views  on  the 
causation  and  maintenance  of  the  fungus  had  as  yet  been  put 
forth ;  season  after  season  passed  and  salmon  was  still  a  prey  to 
its  ravages.  It  was  more  than  likely  that  the  disease  was  knov/n 
prior  to  1821,  but  was  not  studied.  Since  then,  many  scientific 
men,  both  in  this  and  other  countries,  had  turned  their  attention 
to  the  mode  of  reproduction  of  the  fungus,  and  in  recent  years  a 
Royal  Commission  sat  at  Carlisle  and  many  other  towns  in  the 
district,  and  obtained  much  valuable  information  of  all  kinds  likely 
to  have  any  bearing  upon  the  origin  of  the  disease.  To  the 
report  of  this  Commission  he  had  gone  for  his  information,  and 
his  gleanings  from  the  Blue  Book,  as  well  as  such  specimens  as  he 
had  been  enabled  to  get,  must  form  the  bulk  of  his  present  paper. 
That  the  disease  existed  in  North  America,  Mr.  Byers  had  testified; 
moreover,  it  was  a  disease  well-known  to  the  Indians.     This  was 


SALMON  DISEASE.  123 

important  as  showing  that  even  large  and  unpolluted  rivers 
afforded  but  little  immunity.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  disease 
had  shown  itself  to  be  remarkably  local ;  for  the  Tweed,  Nith, 
Annan,  Doon,  Esk,  and  Eden  were  marked  from  all  other  rivers 
in  this  country.  In  the  south,  the  Severn  and  Wye,  both  famous 
salmon  rivers,  had  been  up  to  now  quite  free  from  any  trace  of 
the  disease. 

It  seemed  to  be  agreed  that  the  salmon  disease  was  due  to 
a  fungus  which  grew  upon  the   cutaneous   textures    or   skin   of 
the  fish  ;  and  not  only  upon  salmon  but  upon  many  other  kinds 
of  less  important  fish,  the  fungus  was  also  developed  in  aquaria.    It 
resembled  dirty  cotton  wool,  and  might  be  seen  on  all  parts  of 
the  fish,  the  fins  most  especially  seeming  to  afford  a  suitable  soil 
for  growth.     Attacking  the  head,  the  fungus  might  extend  so  as  to 
cause  blindness,  and  it  might  extend  about  the  gills  so  as  to  cause 
suffocation.     It  also  extended  into  the  mouth,  and  in  some  cases 
so   as   to   lay   the   bones   quite   bare,    and   occasionally   causing 
inflammation  of  the  brain  lying  beneath.     There  was  hardly  any 
part  of  the  body  of  the  fish  which  was  not  liable  to  be  attacked, 
but  the  parts  first  affected  were  the  softer  portions  of  the  body 
which  had  no  scales.     The  effect  of  the  disease  was  clearly  to 
cause  pain  and  irritation.      The  fish  knocked  itself  about,  and 
skimmed  along  the  surface  of  the  water,  possibly  to  rub  off  the 
fungus,  or   relieve  the  irritation.      Death  was  brought  about  by 
suffocation  and  the  destruction  of  the  natural  function  of  the  skin. 
He  next  described  the  fungus  as  seen  under  the  microscope.    On 
taking  a  portion  of  the  fungus  and  allowing  it  to  spread  itself 
out  in  a  drop  of   water,    it    would    be    seen    that    there    were 
numerous    threads   spreading   in   all   directions,    interlacing   and 
joining  each  other,  and  to  appearance  they  were  colourless.     The 
base   of  the  disease  consisted  of  a  network  of  similar  threads, 
which   extended  like   the   roots   of  a   plant.      The   growth   was 
exceedingly  rapid,  and  when  the  filaments  were  mature  they  bore 
fruit  which  consisted  of  zoospores,  rounded  bodies  consisting  of 
protoplasm  endowed  with  movement,  whose  chief  object  seemed 
to  be  to  escape  from  the  tube  which  contained  them.     They 
might  be  seen  working  up  and  down  a  tube  until  they  escaped 
one  by  one  from  an  opening  at  the  summit,   and,  when  free, 
dashed  away  and  formed  tubes  for  themselves.     In  escaping  from 
the  mouth  of  the  tube,  these  zoospores  shaped  themselves  to  the 
size  of  the  opening  and  then  regained  their  former   rotundity. 
Dr.  Cooke  spoke  of  them  as  having  a  pair  of  threads,  which  are 
used  as  oars  for  propulsion.     He  had  not  seen  these  legs,  but  he 
had  little  doubt  that  they  were  analogous  to  the  cilia  which  they 
were  familiar  with  in  the  oyster  and  other  lower  forms  of  life  found 


124  ,  SALMON  DISEASE. 

in  water.  There  was  another  kind  of  fruit  which  the  fungus 
produced,  viz.,  the  resting  spores,  so  called  from  the  fact  that  they 
remain  from  one  season  to  another,  at  the  bottom  of  the  water. 
The  heads  of  the  fungus  were  so  slender  that  it  was  almost 
marvellous  how  any  impression  could  be  made  upon  the  scales  of 
the  fish.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  any  injured  portion  of  the 
body  was  especially  liable  to  be  attacked,  and  fish  received  injuries 
through  fighting,  or  at  weirs,  or  by  coming  in  contact  with  any 
obstruction. 

We  have  in  the  human  body  a  disease  called  diphtheria,  and  it 
was  believed  that  diphtheria  would  readily  attach  itself  to  any 
wound  on  the  body  ;  and  thus  salmon  disease  was  likened  by 
some  to  diphtheria.  There  were  other  conditions  which  seemed 
to  predispose  to  the  disease  besides  injuries,  such  as  debilitated 
condition  of  fish  due  to  want  of  food  or  low  water.  Overstocking 
and  an  ill-aerated  condition  of  the  water  had  been  connected  with 
the  fungus,  more  especially  in  aquaria  ;  and  what  was  more 
important  than  all,  the  fungus  seemed  to  attack  spent  fish,  or  fish 
that  had  just  spawned  and  were  much  out  of  condition.  It  was 
thought  at  one  time  that  only  unclean  fish  were  attacked,  but  it 
was  now  recognised  that  spawned  fish  were  simply  more  liable 
than  others  to  be  diseased. 

Coming  to  the  consideration  of  the  cause  of  the  disease,  they 
were  met  with  a  sea  of  doubt,  a  wilderness  of  opinion  ;  for,  take 
any  cause  that  had  as  yet  been  suggested,  and  it  was  quite  possible 
to  show  that  the  disease  was  present  in  totally  different  circum- 
stances. He  showed  that  the  disease  existed  in  rivers  polluted, 
and  rivers  unpolluted.  Whilst  pollution  might  not  be  a  direct 
cause  of  the  disease,  there  could  be  no  question  that  anything 
which  interfered  with  the  purity  of  the  water  must  indirectly  interfere 
with  the  health  of  the  fish;  and,  therefore,  through  sewage  contam- 
ination or  other  impurity,  salmon  might  become  less  able  to  resist 
the  attack  of  the  fungus  ;  and  this  should  induce  authorities  in 
towns  on  the  higher  waters  of  rivers,  not  to  allow  the  sewage  or 
other  refuse  to  pass  into  the  river ;  whilst  for  towns  near  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  sewage  should  be,  if  allowed  to  go  into  the  river, 
emptied  as  near  the  tideway  as  possible.  In  confirmation  of  this, 
it  had  been  found  that  a  good  supply  of  clear  water  was  a  certain 
cure  for  fungus  when  it  appeared  in  the  tanks  in  aquaria. 

No  disease  had  been  reported  from  Norway,  where  the  rivers 
were  frozen  over  until  May ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Byers 
had  seen  thousands  of  diseased  salmon  in  the  Harrison  River,  in 
British  Columbia.  Incidentally  he  stated  the  disease  was  a  fresh 
water  disease,  salt  water  curing  it.  Much  evidence  going  to  show 
the  possible  influence  of  a  low  condition  of  the  water  upon  salmon 


SALMON  DISEASE.  125 

disease  was  laid  before  the  Commission  ;  and  upon  the  face  of  it, 
it  seemed  very  likely  that  a  scarcity  of  water  meant  a  deficiency  of 
food  and  overcrowding  of  fish  in  holes  ;  and  hence  a  liability  to  a 
feeble  condition  of  the  fish.  The  Eden  was  sometimes  very  low, 
but  was  liable  to  such  periodical  flooding  and  flushing  as  should 
do  away  with  any  thought  that  this  cause  could  have  any  effect 
upon  the  salmon  disease ;  there  was  indeed  no  loch  which  was 
constantly  supplying  the  rivers  with  clear  water,  as  was  the  case 
with  many  rivers  in  Scotland,  such  as  the  Tay  and  Forth ;  and  it 
would  appear  the  presence  of  these  lochs  must  have  a  very 
beneficial  effect  upon  the  river,  and  thus  tend  to  keep  up  the 
general  health  of  the  fish. 

Breeders  of  salmon  by  artificial  means  had  shown  that  over- 
stocking was  a  most  certain  cause  of  fungus ;  inasmuch  as  the 
disease  was  prone  to  attack  any  bruise  or  wound  on  a  salmon,  it 
was  quite  clear  that  all  causes  which  might  produce  injuries  should 
be  met ;  and  all  seemed  to  admit  that  fish  had  great  obstructions 
to  contend  with  at  weirs.  Thus  many  fish  got  blocked  at 
Armathwaite  Bay,  fought  in  hundreds,  and  knocked  themselves  to 
pieces.  The  same  thing  existed  on  the  Tyne,  about  Alston.  It 
would  seem  that  this  cause  was  capable  of  easy  remedy,  and  the 
same  might  be  said  of  the  presence  of  dead  fish,  upon  whose 
bodies  the  fungus  continued  to  grow,  producing  spores  which 
might  rest  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  so  perpetuate  the 
disease. 

The  practice  of  removing  dead  and  diseased  fish  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  was,  no  doubt,  to  be  highly  recommended  as 
a  means  of  stamping  out  the  disease.  Dr.  Cooke  quoted  a  writer 
who  believed  that  if  otters  were  preserved  for  a  season  or  two 
many  of  the  diseased  and  weakly  fish  would  be  got  rid  of  and  the 
breed  of  fish  improved,  inasmuch  as  the  strongest  and  best  fish 
no  doubt  escaped  their  natural  enemy ;  but  Dr.  Cooke  seemed  to 
think  that  the  general  health  of  the  fish  must  be  so  improved  as  to 
enable  them  to  resist  the  attacks  of  parasites.  In  Canada,  fish- 
breeding  was  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  with  considerable  benefit, 
and  there  were  advocates  for  the  introduction  of  this  practice 
in  this  country  as  a  remedy  against  the  salmon  disease.  In 
conclusion,  he  spoke  of  the  condition  of  the  flesh  of  diseased 
salmon,  the  whole  of  which  he  thought  was  probably  unwholesome. 
(Cheers. ) 

The  President  thanked  Dr.  Lediard  for  his  paper. 

Mr.  R.  Routledge  remarked  that  the  disease  is  found 
specially  among  clean  fish.  In  all  diseased  fish  the  liver  was  much 
enlarged.  As  soon  as  they  touched  the  sea-water  the  fungus  was 
washed  off,  and  the  salt  water  parasite  got  on  to  the  fish.     They 


126  REVIEWS. 

could  cure  the  disease  in  aquaria.  He  gave  an  instance  of  a  fish 
being  cured  in  an  aquarium.  The  disease  spread  quickly  ;  he  had 
seen  a  clean  fish  go  among  diseased  fish,  and  in  two  or  three  days 
it  began  to  show  the  disease. 

Mr.  Brown  said  that  the  disease  appears  not  only  upon  other 
kinds  of  fish,  but  also  upon  insects.  One  appearance  Dr.  Lediard 
had  omitted  to  mention  which  was  very  common  in  this  disease 
and  that  was  haemorrhage  in  the  muscles  ;  and  he  had  no  doubt 
that  if  this  fish  on  the  table  were  cut  up  they  would  find  in  its 
muscles  large  collections  of  blood. 

After  remarks  by  other  Members,  the  meeting  separated. 


1Rcview0* 


The  Gentleman's  Magazine  for  January  contains  a  very 
interesting  paper  on  the  "  Garden-Snail,"  from  which  we  make  the 
following  extract : — 

"  The  snail  who  has  arrived  at  the  adult  condition  must  have 
done  so,  of  course,  by  eating  food ;  and  the  way  he  performs  this 
necessary  operation  is  really  very  curious  and  remarkable.  Every- 
body who  has  seen  a  cabbage-leaf  off  which  a  snail  has  been 
making  his  simple  and  inexpensive  breakfast  must  have  noticed 
that  its  edges  are  quite  cleanly  and  neatly  cut,  as  if  by  a  knife  or  a 
pair  of  scissors.  That  suggests  to  one  at  once  the  idea  that  the 
snail  must  be  possessed  of  a  sharp  and  eftective  cutting  instru- 
ment. And  so  indeed  he  is,  for  he  has  a  keen,  horny,  upper  jaw, 
which  closes  upon  a  very  remarkable  saw-like  organ  below,  com- 
monly called  the  tongue  or  dental  ribbon.  This  tongue  is  a  long, 
muscular,  and  cartilaginous  strip,  like  a  piece  of  narrow  tape, 
armed  all  over  with  an  immense  number  of  little  teeth  or  curved 
hooks,  for  tearing  and  masticating  the  food.  It  is  coiled  up 
inside  the  mouth,  and  only  a  small  portion  of  it  is  brought  into 
use  at  any  given  time ;  as  fast  as  the  hooks  on  one  part  are  worn 
out,  another  part  is  unrolled  from  behind,  and  made  to  take  its 
place  in  front  for  the  purpose  of  feeding.  The  little  teeth,  of 
which  there  are  several  thousands — the  slug,  for  example,  has  i6o 
rows,  with  i8o  teeth  in  each  row — are  formed  of  silica  or  flint, 
and  cannot  be  dissolved,  even  in  acid.  They  are  coloured  hke 
amber  under  the  microscope,  and  form  most  beautiful  translucent 


REVIEWS.  127 

objects  when  properly  prepared  and  mounted  on  a  slide.  This 
lingual  ribbon  acts  in  practical  use  exactly  like  a  very  hard  and 
sharp  file.  It  is  with  the  rasping  instrument  that  this  limpet 
slowly  bores  its  way  into  the  solid  limestone  or  granite  rock,  and 
that  the  whelk  eats  a  hole  through  the  nacreous  material  of  the 
hardest  periwinkle's  or  oyster's  shell.  The  back  of  the  tongue  has 
its  edges  rolled  together  into  a  tube,  and  is  the  growing  part  of 
the  organ,  where  the  new  teeth  are  from  time  to  time  developed  ; 
and  as  fast  as  the  front  rows  get  blunted  or  broken  by  use,  the 
tube  opens  gradually  forward,  and  brings  the  fresh,  sharp  teeth 
from  behind  into  play  to  replace  them.  The  shape  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  lingual  hooks  is  very  characteristic  of  the  different 
groups  of  snails.  One  generic  form  prevails  amongst  the  mem- 
bers of  the  genus  Helix,  another  amongst  the  Papas,  a  third  in  the 
Clausilias,  and  a  fourth  in  the  true  slugs.  Doubtless,  each  varia- 
tion in  this  respect  has  been  definitely  developed  with  reference  to 
the  peculiar  food  and  habits  of  the  different  genera." 

Vol.  CCLVI.,  pp.  28-9. 


The  Methods  of  Microscopical  Research  ; 

Popular  JMicroscopical  Studies  ; 

Studies  in  Microscopical  Science. 

By  Arthur  C.  Cole,  F.R.M.S. 

Since  our  last  notice  of  the  above  valuable  series,  we  have 
received  the  following  : — 

Part  5  of  the  "  Methods  "  is  a  continuation  of  the  "  Preparation 
of  Tissues,"  and  treats  of  various  methods  of  injecting  tissues; 
Part  6  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Section-Cutting,  with  the  use  of 
the  Microtome  ;  and  Part  7  of  Stains  and  Staining. 

Of  the  "  Popular  Studies,"  No.  3  describes  the  Human  Scalp, 
and  contains  a  plate  of  a  Vertical  Section  of  Human  Scalp, 
double  stained ;  No.  4  describes  the  Ovary  of  Poppy,  with  a 
plate  of  double-stained  transverse  section  of  Ovary  of  Papaver 
rhccas  (unfertilised) ;  Nos.  5  and  6  describe  a  Grain  of  Wheat, 
with  plates  of,  ist,  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  Grain  cut  through 
the  Embryo,  2nd,  a  plate  explaining  the  Germination  of  the  Grain, 
which  is  to  be  fully  described  in  the  next  number.  The  subjects 
treated  in  the  "  Studies  "  since  our  last  notice  have  been — "  Epi- 
theUum,'  "  The  Cell  as  an  Individual,"  "  Cartilage,"  "  Morpho- 
logy of  a  Tissue,"  "  Areolar  Tissue,"  and  "  Tendon,"  illustrated  by 
plates  showing  Epithelium  (three  kinds);  Micrasterias  denticulata, 


128  REVIEWS. 

trans,  sec.   Hyaline  Cartilage,  Areolar   Tissue,   Types  of  Simple 
Tissues,  Prothallus  of  Fern,  and  Tendon  of  Lamb. 


The  Medical  Annual  and  Practitioners'  Index,  1883-4. 
{Henry  Kimpton^  London.) 

This  handy  little  volume  is  intended  to  be  a  Year-Book  for 
the  study-table  of  the  medical  practitioner.  For  easy  reference 
the  book  is  arranged  in  sections — e.g.^  The  Year's  Work,  Journals, 
Inventions,  Health-Resorts,  etc.  etc.,  and  under  the  various  divi- 
sions the  articles  are  arranged  alphabetically. 


Bolton's  Portfolio  of  Drawings.     No.  10. 

This  Portfolio  contains  drawings  of  two  representatives  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  seventeen  of  the  animal  kingdom.  Of 
the  latter,  we  are  informed  that  Chilovionas  spiralis  and 
Asplanchna  Ebbcsbornii  are  new  to  science.  For  a  fuller  descrip- 
tion of  this  latter,  we  would  refer  our  readers  to  an  article  in  the 
October  part  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Royal  Microscopical 
Society,"  1883. 

Popular  Account  of  the  Fish's  Nest,  Built  by  the  Stickle- 
back {Gastcrosteus  tracJmi^ns).  By  Silvanus  Wilkins  and  T. 
Bolton.     {Birmingham:  Thos.  Bolton.) 

This  very  interesting  little  pamphlet  consists  of — ist,  a  paper 
by  Mr.  S.  Wilkins  read  before  the  Birmingham  Natural  History  and 
Microscopical  Society,  and  followed  by  "  Notes  in  reference  to 
Sticklebacks'  Nests,"  by  Thos.  Bolton,  F.R.M.S. ;  and  "  On  the 
Structure  and  Habits  of  the  Stickleback,"  and  "The  Anatomy 
of  the  Stickleback,"  by  John  Ernest  Ady.  It  is  illustrated  with 
four  plates,  and  will  be  read  with  much  pleasure  by  all  naturalists. 


The  American  Naturalist.  {McCalla  and  Staveley,  Phila- 
delphia. ) 

The  January  and  February  parts  of  this  very  capital  Journal 
have  reached  us ;  their  contents  are  well  selected  and  interesting. 
Some  of  the  articles  are,  more  than  others,  especially  to  our  taste ; 
of  these,  we  would  name,  "  Observations  on  the  Pulsating  Organs 
in  the  Legs  of  certain  Hemiptera,"  with  plate ;  and  "  Notes  on 
some  Apparently  Undescribed  Infusoria  from  Putrid  Waters," 
illustrated.  But  we  read  the  whole  of  each  journal  with  much 
pleasure. 


CURRENT  NOTES  AND  MEMORANDA.        129 

The  American  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal,  edited 
by  Mr.  Romyn  Hitchcock,  is,  as  usual,  full  of  entertaining  and 
instructive  matter.  In  the  February  part,  just  to  hand,  is  com- 
menced the  first  of  a  series  of  Papers  on  "  Microscopical  Tecnic." 
The  first  article  treats  of  Apparatus  and  Material.  The  limited 
space  at  our  disposal  forbids  a  more  lengthy  remark  on  the  present 
occasion. 


Current  IRotee  an&  fiDcmoranba* 


The  President  of  the  Carlisle  Microscopical  Society  has 
asked  us  to  publish  the  follo\Ying  very  interesting  Letter  from  Dr. 
W.  B.  Carpenter,  F.R.S.,  who  has  recently  become  an  Honorary 
Vice-President  of  that  Society  : — 

"London;  Nov.  28th,  1883. 
Dear  Mr.  C.  S.  Hall, — 

I  accept  with  much  pleasure  the  office  of  Vice-President 
of  the  Carhsle  Microscopical  Society,  for  which  you  are  good 
enough  to  propose  me ;  and  shall  be  very  glad  if  any  words  of 
mine  can  help  to  give  such  a  direction  to  the  work  of  its  Members, 
as  may  prevent  the  'power'  of  your  Society  from  'running  to 
waste.' 

For  this  end  it  is  extremely  important,  in  my  judgment,  that 
Microscopists  should  first  train  themselves  in  the  expert  use  of 
the  instrument  and  its  most  important  appliances  ;  and  should 
then  devote  themselves  especially  (I  by  no  means  desire  exclusively) 
to  some  particular  study ;  each  selecting  what  his  own  opportunities 
and  mental  interests  make  him  feel  most  suitable  to  himself. 

It  was  thus  that  my  late  friend  and  early  pupil,  G.  H.  K. 
Thwaites,  who  had  taken  up  the  study  of  living  Diatoms  at  my 
suggestion — now  forty  years  ago — was  enabled  to  discover  the 
cardinal  fact  of  their  conjugation  and  production  of  a  Zygo- 
spore. And  if  one  tenth  of  the  time  that  has  been  since 
bestowed  on  the  markings  of  their  valves  had  been  given  to 
the  study  of  their  life-history,  our  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
group  would  have  been  greatly  advanced,  instead  of  remaining 
almost  stationary.  The  continuous  study  of  the  life-history  of  the 
Monads  by  Messrs.  Dallinger  and  Drysdale,  which  has  given  results 


130  '        CURRENT  NOTES 

of  first-rate  importance  to  Biological  Science,  is  a  recent  example 
of  what  may  be  done  by  a  combination  of  two  (or  more)  qualified 
observers.  And  I  need  scarcely  point  out  to  a  body  including 
many  Medical  men,  what  a  wide  field  there  now  is  in  the  study  of 
disease-germs. 

As  a  qualification  for  that  study,  I  should  suggest  the  deter- 
mination of  the  life-history  of  the  Yeast-pla?it.  For  there  is  a  strong 
reason  to  believe  that  what  we  know  under  this  form  is  only  an 
aberrant  stage  in  the  life  of  an  ordinary  Aliicor ;  its  cell-germs 
developing  themselves  in  a  very  different  mode,  in  a  sacchara-albu- 
minous  liquid,  from  that  in  which  they  vegetate  on  an  ordinary 
mould-producing  surface.  And  while,  on  the  one  hand,  it  was  long 
since  observed  by  Mr.  Berkeley  that  a  Mucor  may  develop  itself 
in  a  confervoid  form  in  ordinary  water,  it  is  still  an  open  question 
whether,  if  growing  in  an  organic  fluid,  the  same  Mucor  may  not 
become  the  'Vinegar  Plant.' 

I  have  always,  myself,  been  a  believer  in  the  great  poly- 
morphism of  the  '  saprophytic  '  Fungi ;  and  I  recently  read  at 
Southport,  a  paper  on  '  Disease-Germs  from  the  Natural  History 
point  of  view,'  in  which  I  argued  that  the  extension  of  the  same 
idea  to  disease-germs  will  account  for  many  clinical  facts  observed 
by  able  practitioners  of  Medicine,  which  have  hitherto  received 
(in  my  opinion)  far  too  little  attention, — I  mean,  the  occurrence 
of  what  have  been  called  hybrid  varieties  of  Exanthemata,  or  of 
forms  of  fever  intermediate  between  Typhus  and  Typhoid,  or  the 
conversion  of  an  endemic  malarious  remittent  into  a  contagious 
fever. 

It  is  because  the  Microscope  thus  gives  most  important  aid 
in  the  working  out  of  some  of  the  fundamental  questions  of 
Pathology,  that  I  am  most  anxious  to  see  Medical  men  training 
themselves  to  the  right  use  of  it. 

Believe  me,  yours  faithfully, 

Wm.  B.  Carpenter. 
C.  S.  Hall,  Esq." 


We  are  informed  by  Mr.  Chas.  CoUins,  25,  St.  Mary's  Road, 
Harlesden,  N.W.  (nephew  of  the  well-known  Mr.  Chas.  Collins,  of 
Portland  Road),  that  he  has  lately  given  considerable  attention  to 
the  study  of  the  Scales  of  Fishes,  and  that  he  has  now  prepared 
for  sale  a  selection  of  over  50  varieties.  Of  these  we  have  seen — 
Scale  of  Boar-Fish,  mounted  for  the  Polariscope  \  Scale  of  Sole, 
and  Skin  of  Dog-Fish,  both  mounted  opaque.  The  style  of 
mounting  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired. 


AND  MEMORANDA.  131 

We  have  been  favoured  by  the  Secretary  of  the  New  York 
Microscopical  Society  with  an  invitation  to  the  Sixth  Annual 
Reception  of  that  Society,  which  was  held  on  Friday  evening, 
Feb.  I  St,  1884. 

From  the  programme  enclosed,  we  should  judge  the  enter- 
tainment to  have  been  of  an  unusually  interesting  character.  The 
subject  of  the  address,  which  was  given  by  B.  Braman,  Esq.,  the 
retiring  President,  was  "  The  Microscope  in  Art."  The  exhibits, 
of  which  48  are  described  in  the  programme,  are  well  selected. 
We  are  particularly  pleased  to  notice  that  each  exhibit  is  more  or 
less  particularly  described  in  the  programme,  thus  affording  a  more 
lasting  interest  and  instruction  to  the  visitors.  We  have  only 
space  to  quote  one  or  two,  viz.  : — 

"  3. — Tongue  of  Humble-Bee. — With  its  Ivigida^  or  tongue, 
the  Bee  collects  nectar  from  flowers  by  lapping,  not  by  suction. 

"  9. — PoLYCiSTiNA  are  a  family  of  the  low  order  of  animal  life, 
called  Rhizopods.  Their  foraminated,  siliceous  shells  are  found  in 
great  abundance  in  a  tertiary  deposit  1,100  feet  thick  in  the  island 
of  Barbadoes.  In  the  living  state,  thread-like  organs  {pseudo- 
podia)  radiate  from  the  interior  through  openings  called  foramina. 

"  II. — Cilia  of  the  Oyster.  Cilia  are  transparent,  thread- 
like organs,  which  have  an  important  connection  with  the  vital 
functions.  Their  motions  in  the  oyster  serve  to  drive  a  current  of 
water  over  the  surface  of  the  gills,  so  as  to  aerate  the  blood ;  also, 
to  direct  a  part  of  this  current  to  the  mouth,  to  supply  food." 

We  would  recommend  this  style  of  programme  to  secretaries 
and  others  connected  with  our  local  microscopical  societies. 


Bacilli. — Those  of  our  readers,  medical  or  otherwise,  who  are 
studying  this  organism  will,  perhaps,  be  interested  in  the  following 
extracts  from  "  The  London  Medical  Record  "  for  Feb.,  1884. 

Prof  Sormani  says,  in  the  Afviali  Universalis  Sept.,  1883  : — 
"  For  microscopic  examination  of  the  Bacilli. — A  thin  layer  of 
sputum,  spread  on  a  cover-glass,  is  dried  over  the  flame  of  a 
spirit-lamp,  and  then  immersed  in  the  solution  of  gentian-violet 
(Weigert's  formula  : — Gentian- violet,  1*5  parts,  dissolved  in  15  parts 
of  absolute  alcohol ;  add  3  parts  of  oil  of  aniline,  and  dissolve  in 
TOO  parts  of  distilled  water).  It  should  remain  in  this  solution  for 
15  or  20  minutes,  or  longer;  it  is  then  rapidly  passed  into  dilute 
nitric  acid  (50  per  100),  then  into  alcohol,  and  then  into  a  weak 
aqueous  solution  of  vesuvine,  and,  lastly,  well  washed  in  absolute 
alcohol.  The  preparations  may  be  mounted  in  oil  of  cloves, 
castor-oil,  or   dammar  varnish.     Sections  require   three  or  four 


182         CURRENT  NOTES  AND  MEMORANDA. 

hours  to  take  the  colour,  and  should  generally  be  allowed  to 
remain  twenty-four  hours." — P.  52. 

Burrill  on  Staining  Bacilli.— Dr.  S.  J.  Burrill  (New  York 
Medical  Record)  recommends  the  following  method  of  staining 
Bacilli: — Take  glycerine,  20  parts;  fuchsia,  3  parts  ;  aniline  oil,  2 
parts ;  carbolic  acid,  2  parts.  Make  a  solution,  and  keep  for  use. 
When  required,  put  about  two  drops  in  a  watch-glass  (a  small 
pomatum-pot  is  better),  full  of  water,  and  gently  shake  or  stir. 
Put  in  the  smeared  cover-glass,  after  passing  it  a  few  times  through 
a  flame,  and  leave  it  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  a  comfortable 
room  for  half-an-hour.  If  quicker  results  be  desired,  boil  a  little 
water  in  a  test-tube,  add  double  the  above  quantity  of  staining 
solution,  shake  it  gently  till  dissolved,  then  pour  into  a  convenient 
dish,  and  put  in  the  cover-glass.  Staining  will  be  effected  in  about 
two  minutes.  The  preparation  is  decolorised  in  the  usual  way  by 
nitric-acid  solution,  one  in  four,  in  which  it  is  left  about  a  minute, 
then  dried,  and  mounted  in  Canada  Balsam. 

London  Medical  Record^  Feb.,   1884,  p.  73. 


We  are  requested  to  insert  the  following  queries,  and  shall  be 
glad  of  replies  : — 

What  is  the  effect  of  acetic  acid  upon  chitine  ? — E.T.S. 

If  acedc  acid  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  specimens  for 
mounting,  where  is  it  to  be  placed  in  the  formula  for  mounting  ? — 
E.T.S. 

Would  some  members  of  the  P. M.S.,  or  reader  of  this  Journal, 
give  their  ideas  upon  Development,  Introduction  of  New  Species 
or  Genera,  and  Alteration  or  Change  in  estabHshed  Species  ? 

Development  necessarily  implies  improvement  in  some  particu- 
lar ;  and  this,  though  there  may  be  at  the  same  time  a  degenera- 
tion ;  thus,  it  is  correct  to  say  that  there  is  a  development  in  some 
muscles  of  the  Quadrumana  as  compared  with  the  corresponding 
muscles  in  man,  though  the  species  is  of  an  inferior  type.  I  do 
not  know  if  there  is  any  well-authenticated  instance  of  the 
introduction  of  a  new  genus,  while  there  are  many  instances  of 
the  gradual  formation  of  a  new  species  :  but  I  should  like  very 
much  to  know  if  there  has  been  any  introduction  of  a  new  species, 
which  has  not  really  been  arrived  at  by  alteration  or  modification 
in  an  old-established  species,  when  subjected  to  altered  conditions 
of  existence. — Enquirer. 

Answers  to  the  above  queries,  if  found  suitable,  will  be 
inserted  in  our  next. 


Journal  of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3,P115. 


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THE   JOURNAL   OF   MICROSCOPY 

AND 

NATURAL     SCIENCE  : 

the  journal   of 
The    Postal    Microscopical   Society. 


JULY,     1884. 


®n  6ome  1Rew  3nfu6oria  from  BrietoL 

By  J.  G.  Grenfell,  F.G.S. 
Read  before  the  Microscopical  Society  of  Bristol,  1883. 


Plate  15. 


CV-5 


% 

AST  winter  I  obtained  some  new  infusoria  from  a 
little  ditch  near  Bristol.  The  first  of  these  is  a  new 
species  of  ZootJiamiiium^  which  I  have  named  Zoo- 
thamniiun  Ke7itii^  after  Mr.  Savile  Kent.  It  belongs 
apparently  to  the  homomorphic  division  of  the  genus, 
in  which  there  are  no  large  reproductive  zooids  ;  at 
least  during  the  months  of  January  and  February  I 
did  not  see  any  of  these  on  full-grown  colonies. 
Unfortunately  the  drought  of  March  dried  up  the 

ditch,  and  I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  since  then. 

Z.  KeTitii  (PI.  15,  Figs,  i  and  2)  is  an  exceedingly  fine  species ; 

I  have  counted  as  many  as  80  or  90  zooids  in   a  single  colony. 

The  length  of  this  colony  was  i-iith  inch.      The  zooids  are  coni- 

cal-campanulate,  and   considerably   elongated,    the    length  being 

L 


■^ 


Oy  V  V3' 


134  ON  SOME  NEW 

nearly  twice  the  breadth.  The  peristome  is  thickened,  but  not 
very  prominent ;  the  endoplast  is  large,  band-like,  and  curved. 
When  contracted,  the  zooids  are  nearly  spherical.  They  are 
grouped  on  a  main  rachis,  which  subdivides  dichotomously  with 
great  regularity.  After  the  last  main  subdivision  of  the  stems 
there  are  generally  two  short  stalks  on  the  same  side,  and  the  ter- 
minal one,  each  ending  in  a  pair  of  almost  sessile  zooids.  The 
stems  are  broad  and  very  finely  ribbed  transversely.  These,  and 
all  the  zooids,  are  covered  more  or  less  thickly  with  a  characteris- 
tic flocculent  coating,  which  was  of  a  brown  colour  in  this  ditch. 
The  number  of  zooids  in  a  colony  varies  from  3  or  4  to  80  or  90. 
The  larger  colonies  are  very  active  and  timid,  frequently  contract- 
ing so  as  to  form  a  ball  at  the  top  of  the  main  rachis,  and  some- 
times remaining  thus  for  24  hours.  The  small  colonies  remain 
extended  for  long  periods.  The  zooids  very  readily  leave  their 
stems.  Length  of  zooids,  i-285th  inch.  Habitat,  grasses  and 
roots  of  plants  in  slowly-running  water.  This  species  most  nearly 
resembles  Z.  dichotomum^  but  it  differs  from  this  and  from  all 
other  species  of  the  genus  in  the  characteristic  covering  of  floccu- 
lent matter.  The  elongated  shape  of  the  zooids  is  also  character- 
istic. Contrary  to  the  ordinary  habits  of  the  genus,  I  noticed  in 
the  large  colony  mentioned  above  that  one  very  long  branch  often 
remained  extended  while  the  rest  contracted,  and  this  branch  came 
up  into  position  last  after  contraction.  I  also  saw  one  of  the  lower 
branches  contract  independently,  though  the  central  fibrilla  of  the 
stem  is  continuous  throughout  the  colony. 

On  Duckweed  and  other  plants  in  the  same  ditch,  I  found  a 
new  species  of  Fyxicola,  which  I  propose  to  call  Pyxicola 
anfiulaia  (PI.  15,  Fig.  3).  Lorica  urceolate,  nearly  twice  as  long 
as  broad,  constricted  on  one  side  below  the  oblique  anterior 
margin ;  the  side  walls  more  or  less  undulated  or  ringed.  These 
undulations  generally  show  two  or  three  well-marked  narrow 
ridges,  the  lowest  of  which  is  about  half  way  down  the  lorica,  and 
the  two  others  are  close  above  it.  These  are  often  much  more 
clearly  seen  on  one  side  than  on  the  other,  and  occasionally 
they  are  difficult  to  see  at  all,  or  vanish  altogether.  The  lower 
half  of  the  lorica  has  no  ridges.  In  these  respects  this  species 
resembles  P.  socialis.     The  operculum  is  oval,  and  is  surrounded 


INFUSORIA   FROM    BRISTOL.  135 

by  a  thickened  border  ;  under  slight  pressure  the  animal  casts 
off  the  operculum.  The  pedicle  is  colourless,  transparent,  and 
short,  about  i-5th  the  length  of  the  lorica.  As  in  P.  Carter i, 
it  is  surmounted  by  a  little  boss-like  prominence.  Colour  of  the 
lorica,  chestnut  brown  ;  yellow  when  young.  The  animal  is  thick, 
fusiform,  at  times  nearly  cylindrical.  It  generally  protrudes  very 
slightly  from  the  anterior  margin,  its  favourite  position  being  with 
the  edge  of  the  operculum  resting  obliquely  on  the  margin  of  the 
lorica,  and  the  peristome  completing  the  triangle.  I  have,  how- 
ever, seen  it  extended  further,  carrying  the  operculum  some  distance 
above  the  lorica,  and  in  a  vertical  position.  The  contractile  vesi- 
cle is  large  ;  sometimes  two  or  three  are  formed,  which  may  or  may 
not  coalesce  before  contracting.  Length  of  lorica,  i -400th  inch  ; 
breadth,  i -Sooth  inch. 

In  many  respects  this  species  is  very  like  P.  Carteri;  the  points 
of  difference  are  three. 

First,  the  dimensions  are  quite  different,  and  the  difference  is 
constant,  as  I  have  seen  many  specimens.  The  lorica  of  Carteri 
is  three  times  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  while  this  is  not  quite  twice. 
Secondly,  the  undulations  of  this  species  are  much  smaller  than 
those  of  Carteri,  taking  more  the  form  of  rings.  Thirdly,  the 
rings  are  confined  to  the  upper  half  of  the  lorica,  while  Cai-teri  is 
evenly  undulated  to  the  foot.  The  undulating  outHne  distinguishes 
it  from  Affinis  and  Pusilla.  The  animal  is  hardy ;  it  lived  com- 
fortably for  two  months  in  a  little  corked  tube,  about  an  inch  long. 

On  the  same  weed  I  found  a  number  of  new  species  of  Platy- 
cola,  which  I  have  named  P.  bicolor,  from  the  two  colours  of  the 
lorica.  (PI.  15,  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  and  7).  Lorica,  dark  yellow,  oval, 
much  depressed  ;  length  about  i  J  times  the  breadth ;  the  yellow 
portion  of  the  lorica  is  obUquely  truncated  in  front ;  from  it  a  deli- 
cate, colourless  neck  rises  to  a  height  of  about  Ys  the  whole 
length  of  the  lorica,  measured  from  the  basal  surface  of  at- 
tachment of  the  lorica.  The  sides  of  the  neck  are  straight,  or 
very  slightly  concave  ;  the  upper  side  often  nearly  at  right  angles 
to  the  axis  of  the  body.  This  colourless  neck  is  the  first  point  of 
interest  in  this  species.  De  Fromentel  describes  a  vaginicola,  of 
which  the  upper  two-thirds  are  colourless  and  transparent,  the 
lower  third  brown.     JMr.  Kent  thinks  this  so  remarkable  that  he 


136  ON  SOME  NEW 

suggests  that  the  upper  portion  may  be  repaired,  or  even  the  newly- 
formed  lorica  of  a  young  individual  built  up  on  the  fragmentary 
basal  portion  of  a  deserted  test.  I  have  seen  many  specimens  of 
this  Flatycoia,  and  they  all  have  the  same  peculiarity.  The  length 
of  the  lorica  is  i-3ooth  inch.  The  surface  of  a  lorica,  seen  from 
above,  and  presumed  to  be  this  species,  presented  a  number  of 
fine  transverse  striae. 

The  animal  is  very  large  ;  and  if  all  the  specimens  I  have  seen 
are  of  the  same  species,  it  can  protrude  itself  to  an  extraordinary 
extent,  the  height  considerably  exceeding  the  length  of  the  lorica. 
This,  however,  was  in  a  single  small  specimen  (Fig.  7),  which  pre- 
sented the  further  peculiarity  that  the  colourless  neck  was  quite 
two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  lorica.  It  is  possible  this  may  be 
another  species.  As  a  rule,  Bicolor  is  not  protruded  nearly  so  far  ; 
the  total  height  being  about  two-thirds  the  length.  At  times  the 
body  is  suddenly  and  very  much  constricted  just  at  the  margin  of 
the  collar,  so  as  to  present  somewhat  the  form  of  an  hour-glass 

(Fig.  4). 

The  peristome  is  unusually  thick  and  prominent,  and  the  ciliary 
disc  is  much  elevated.  By  far  the  most  interesting  point,  however, 
about  the  animal  is  the  presence  of  a  very  delicate  membranous 
hood,  which  has  a  large  oval  opening,  is  retractile,  and  projects 
backwards  from  the  top  of  the  ciliary  disc,  covering  the  oval  open- 
ing. I  do  not  know  of  any  similar  structure  amongst  the  Infusoria. 
De  Fromentel,  in  describing  another  species  of  this  genus,  P. 
gracilis^  mentions  that  the  vestibular  bristle,  in  addition  to  being 
conspicuous,  is  often  reflexed  in  a  ring-Uke  form,  and  so  figures  it. 
I  quote  this  from  Mr.  Kent's  Manual,  where  the  figure  is  not  re- 
produced. It  is  probable  that  Gracilis  has  a  hood  like  Bicolor. 
Mr.  Kent  remarks  that  from  De  Fromentel's  description  and  illus- 
tration it  would  appear  that  Gracilis  has  a  distinct  membranous  lip 
or  collar,  such  as  occurs  in  the  genera  Opercularia  and  Lagenophrys. 
These  collars,  however,  bear  no  sort  of  resemblance  to  the  hood 
of  Bicolor.  I  am  not  quite  clear  as  to  the  function  of  this  hood. 
I  think  I  once  saw  the  digested  food  issuing  from  this  hood,  and  it 
is  possible  its  use  may  be  to  keep  the  digested  food  away  from  the 
action  of  the  cilia,  and  so  prevent  it  from  being  again  brought  in 
by  the  current. 


INFUSORIA  FROM   BRISTOL.  137 

The  pharynx  of  Bicolor  is  very  large,  and  terminates  in  a  tubu- 
lar oesophagus,  which  extends  down  to  the  coloured  part  of  the 
lorica. 

The  animal  is  quite  colourless;  inside  the  lorica  a  constant 
cyclosis  of  large  granules  may  often  be  seen.  I  have  seen  no 
traces  of  a  fringe  round  the  lorica.  In  one  case  the  lorica,  when 
first  seen,  contained  a  second  zooid,  contracted,  and  not  reaching 
to  the  neck  ;  this  one  soon  emerged  from  the  opening  and  swam 
away.  Amongst  specimens  of  this  species,  I  came  across  one 
which  may  possibly  be  a  different  species  (Figs.  8  and  9).  The 
lorica  was  yellow,  oval,  and  rather  more  than  i-^  times  as  long  as 
broad.  The  anterior  margin  of  the  lorica  was  at  right  angles  to 
the  surface  of  attachment,  or  nearly  so ;  its  upper  margin  forming 
an  everted  rim.  Seen  from  above,  the  opening  was  large,  oblong, 
and  oblique,  the  right  side  not  raised  at  all,  the  left  side  produced 
so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  ear.  This  peculiarity  separates  it  from  all 
other  species  of  the  genus.  There  was  no  frill-like  expansion 
round  the  lorica.  Two  zooids  inhabited  the  lorica  ;  they  were 
hyaline,  the  body  thick,  and  protruding  for  some  distance  outward 
and  forward.  The  peristome  thick,  and  the  ciliary  disc  a  good  deal 
elevated.  I  did  not  notice  any  hood,  but  my  attention  had  not 
then  been  drawn  to  its  existence  in  Bicolor.  The  animals  extended 
themselves  readily,  but  were  also  fond  of  remaining  with  their 
heads  just  filling  the  mouth  of  the  lorica.  Length  of  lorica, 
i-333rd  inch.  If  it  is  really  a  new  species,  I  should  propose  to 
call  it  Platycola  aurita.  Its  nearest  ally  seems  to  be  P.  regularis 
(De  Fromentel). 

P.S. — Since  the  above  description  of  Pyxicola  anmilata  was 
written,  I  find  that  Dr.  Leidy  discovered  the  same  animal  appar- 
ently on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  just  about  the  same  time, 
and  gave  it  the  same  name.     This  is  a  curious  coincidence. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    XV. 


Fig.   1. — Zoothamnium  Kcntii. 
,,     2. — The  same,  a  single  zooid;    e.,   endoplast ;    c.i'.,  contractile 
vesicle. 


138  ON  THE   COLLECTION  AND 

Fig.  3. — Pyxicola  annulata  :   o.,  operculum  ;  c.v.,  contractile  vesicle. 

J 5      4. — Platycola  hicolor,  showing  h.,  hood  ;  ce.,  oesophagus;  c,  collar. 

,,     5. — The   ordinary   shape   of   the   lorica   of   P.    Ucolor,  showing 
colourless  collar. 

6. — P.  hicolor  enlarged,  the  letters  as  before. 

7. — An  abnormally  elongated  specimen  of  P.  hicolor  Q.). 

8. — Platycola  aiirita. 

9. — Lorica  of  P.  aurita  viewed  from  above. 


®\\  tbc  Collection  anb  preparation  of 

tbe  ©iatontace^* 

■  By    Alfred    W.     Griffin. 


Part  I. — Collection. 


I  CANNOT  claim  for  this  paper  any  originality  of  thought, 
neither  can  I  introduce  anything  particularly  novel ;  it  is 
simply  an  attempt  to  gather  together  some  of  the  ideas  of 
the  best  authorities  on  the  question,  for  the  benefit  of  those  whose 
want  of  leisure  precludes  them  from  searching  out  these  facts  for 
themselves.  The  study  of  the  life-history  of  the  Diatomace^e  is 
in  itself  a  stupendous  work,  and  the  interest  excited  by  it  is 
increasingly  great.  But  far  more  interesting  is  the  study  of  their 
siliceous  framework,  which  alike  resists  time  and  decay.  The 
softer  part  of  the  frustule  is  requisitioned  by  Nature,  and  utilised 
by  her  in  her  many  and  varied  operations,  in  obedience  to  that 
law  which  compels  organic  matter  to  undergo  constant  changes, 
whether  progressive  or  retrogade  in  its  work  of  utility. 

The  animated  matter  quickly  loses  its  identity  and  its  relation 
to  form,  but  the  silicified  skeletons  of  Tricerathmi  and  Cosci?io- 
discus  are  as  perfectly  preserved  in  the  mud  of  the  Thames  as  in 
the  various  fossil  deposits  of  California,  or  those  found  in  the 
guano  of  South  America.  There  is  scarcely  a  species  of 
Diatomacese  that  occurs  in  this  quasi-fossil  condition  which  has 
not  its  living  representative. 

The  .^gina  clay  marl,   which   is  without  doubt  the  oldest 


PREPARATION   OF  THE  DIATOMACE^.  139 

formation  in  which  the  Diatomacese  appear,  has  its  forms,  one  and 
all,  extant  on  our  coasts,  and  I  think  I  am  quite  correct  in  stating 
that  every  known  Diatom,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two 
doubtful  cases,  is  proved  to  be  still  occupying  a  place  on  some 
part  of  the  earth's  surface. 

As  the  fossil  deposits  are,  I  think,  the  most  extensive  and 
beautiful  in  their  variety  of  forms,  and  are  also  easily  obtainable, 
they  shall  receive  our  first  attention. 

Under  this  head,  let  us  consider  the  enormous  sub-plutonic 
strata  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America,  and  described 
by  Professor  Meade  Edwards,  and  from  which  we  learn  that  the 
fossil  deposits  may  contain  both  fresh-water  and  marine  species, 
though  never  of  course  in  a  mixed  condition.  Marine  deposits 
decidedly  predominate,  and  extend  over  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  while  fresh-water  deposits,  though 
of  greater  depth,  are  more  decidedly  local  in  their  distribution. 
The  Miocene-tertiary  age  furnishes  us  with  the  most  important 
examples,  and  concerning  these  a  correspondent  in  Virginia, 
U.S.A.,  thus  writes  me : — "  There  is  a  very  long  chain  of 
Diatomaceous  deposits  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Atlantic  coast, 
extending  from  Richmond  Va.  and  Petersburg  through  Maryland 
into  Pennsylvania ;  then  follows  a  chain  of  fresh-water  deposits 
beginning  at  Drakeville,  New  Jersey,  extending  to  Montecello, 
New  York ;  then  through  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  into  Canada  and 
Nova  Scotia.  In  the  first  two  of  these,  Eunotia  in  many  species 
abounds,  in  the  others,  varieties  of  Navicular  as  N.  firma^  JV. 
rhouiboides,  JV.  iwiiescens^  and  N.  serians,  but  a  certain  similarity 
runs  through  them  all,  though  the  gradual  appearance  and 
disappearance  of  certain  forms,  from  ten  to  twenty  miles  apart,  is 
very  interesting." 

The  appearance  of  the  deposit  is  subject  to  the  following 
variations,  according  to  Professor  Edwards,  from  a  pure  white 
through  the  various  shades  of  grey,  cream,  and  fawn,  to  an  iron- 
rust  tint.  The  texture  is  frequently  friable,  not  unlike  clay  in  its 
appearance  when  wet;  at  other  times  it  is  hard  and  stony,  though 
always  porous,  and,  when  soft,  of  very  little  weight.  As  this 
deposit  furnishes  us  with  some  of  the  most  lovely  known  forms, 


140  ON  THE   COLLECTION  AND 

I  would  strongly  recommend  that  specimens  should  be 
procured  from  various  localities,  more  particularly  from  the 
following  :-Petersburg,  Richmond,  Shochoe,  Poplin,  and  Churchill, 
in  Virginia;  and  from  Maryland,  Lower  Marlborough,  New  and  Old 
Nottingham,  Piscataway,  and  Rappahannock  Cliff.  The  most 
prominent  forms  in  this  last  deposit  are — Asterolampra^  Actinop- 
tyc/ms,  Aulacodisais,  Adinocychis^  Amphitetras^  Co  sino  discus  ^ 
Cerataulus^  Dictyocha,  Eupodiscus^  Grammatophora^  Heliopeltay 
Oinphalopelta^  and  Melosira,  but  besides  these  there  are  many 
others,  too  numerous  to  mention.  In  passing,  however,  I 
would  state  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  anxious  to  obtain  the 
finest  and  greatest  number  of  specimens  of  Heliopelta,  that  the 
deposit  at  Old  Nottingham  will  prove  better  than  any  other.  For 
the  fresh-water  series  I  would  recommend  Essex  County,  Con- 
necticut River ;  Cherryfield,  Maine ;  Port  Hope,  Canada  ;  and 
Carson  City,  Nevada.  This  latter  is  a  deposit  which  I  have 
just  received  direct,  and  is,  I  believe,  but  little  known ;  it  is  very 
abundant  and  pure ;  the  predominating  forms  are  fine  examples  of 
Detiticula  laufa,  Epithemia  ocellata,  and  Surirella  spiralis.  In  the 
former  stratum  Cocconema^  Eunotia,  Epithemia,  Naviaila,  Nitz- 
schia,  Fin?iularia,  Stauroneis,  and  Syjicdra  abound  in  many  forms 
and  varieties. 

A  stratum  similar  to  the  Virginia  and  Maryland  series,  but  of 
harder  texture,  has  been  found  on  the  Pacific  coasts  of  North  and 
South  America,  and  extending  at  least  from  San  Francisco  to  the 
lower  border  of  California,  and,  according  to  Professor  Edwards, 
possibly  further  in  both  directions.  In  the  bituminous  shales  of 
this  series  we  come  to  that  interesting  deposit  known  as  "Monterey 
Stone,"  which  is  well  worthy  of  collection  at  the  points  of  San 
Diego  and  Santa  Cruz,  because  of  the  fine  varieties  of  Asterolampra 
which  it  contains.  Monterey  stone  is  usually  of  a  fawn  colour, 
and  is  distinctly  stratified.  Large  fossil  shells  and  the  bitumen 
of  California  are  found  in  it. 

At  Badjik,  near  Varna,  in  Bulgaria,  is  a  stony  stratum,  having 
shells  and  bones  mixed  with  it ;  but  the  Diatomaceas  obtained  from 
it  are  doubtless  identical  with  those  contained  in  our  present 
brackish  waters.  Speaking  from  memory,  I  believe  they  consist 
chiefly  of  some  fine  examples  of  Eupodiscus^  but  the  true  deposit 


PREPARATION  OF  THE   DIATOMACE^.  141 

is  difficult  to  obtain.  On  the  island  of  Jutland,  in  Denmark,  is 
found  a  series  of  polishing  slates,  the  polischeifer  of  the  German 
geologists,  containing  Trinacria  regi?ia,  which  is  quite  local  in  its 
origin,  and  also  Coscinodisciis  ociilis-iridis^  both  very  abundant  in 
the  Fiir  Rock;  and  it  is  also  remarkable  that  the  latter 
approaches  in  character,  somewhat,  the  diatoms  of  the  London  clay. 
These  were  discovered  some  httle  time  since  by  W.  H.  Shrubsole, 
Esq.,  F.G.S.  The  silica  of  the  frustules  has  been  replaced  by  iron 
pyrites,  thus  giving  them,  by  reflected  light,  the  appearance  of 
brass  buttons.  I  strongly  recommend  that  these  should  find  a 
place  in  every  cabinet,  and  as  Mr.  Shrubsole  informs  me  his 
supply  is  exhausted,  he  has  advised  me  to  apply  to  Mr.  A.  C.  Cole, 
of  London,  with  whose  "  Studies  "  we  are  all  so  well  acquainted. 

Another  well-known  deposit  is  that  of  Oran,  in  Algeria,  which 
abounds  in  some  of  the  smaller  forms  of  Coscinodisciis^  as 
well  as  Dictyocha  fibula.  ^Egina  and  Caltanisetta,  in  Greece, 
furnish  us  with  similar  forms,  intermixed  with  Polycystina  and 
Foraminifera,  evidently  of  the  cretaceous  age.  The  Springfield 
deposit  also  is  justly  celebrated  for  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its 
Polycystina ;  and  these  are  accompanied  by  forms  of  Diatom- 
acese  which  are  by  no  means  less  interesting. 

Indeed,  I  might  add  that  as  there  are  so  many  localities  which 
furnish  these,  it  is  very  probable  that  the  whole  of  the  island  of 
Barbadoes  is  occupied  by  one  deep  stratum  of  chalk  marl.  A 
similar  deposit  has  been  discovered  in  the  Island  of  Trinidad, 
which  is  considered  to  be  connected  with  the  New  Red  Sandstone 
series.  At  Moron,  in  Spain,  the  same  stratum  again  occurs  ;  and 
a  still  further  deposit  was  discovered  by  Dr.  C.  F.  Winslow  at  a 
point  about  seventy  miles  south  of  the  town  of  Payta,  in  Peru, 
on  a  broad  plain,  having  various  depressions,  the  bottom  of  which 
w^ould  correspond  with  the  ordinary  sea  level.  The  surface 
of  the  soil  is  covered  with  salt  to  the  depth  of  about  fifteen 
feet ;  recent  sea-shells  are  next  met  with,  then  the  bones  of  certain 
cetaceans  mixed  with  pebbles ;  then  for  one  or  two  feet  follows 
a  yellow  loam ;  and  last  of  all  the  stratum  containing  the  diatom- 
aceae,  which  consists  of  a  thickness  of  from  two  to  four  feet.  A 
similar  deposit  also  occurs  at  Tetani,  in  Japan,  and  is  certainly 
one  of  our  most  interesting  series,  from  its  comparative  rarity  and 


142  ON   THE    COLLECTION    AND 

the   beauty   of   the  siHceous  shields   it  contains — Asteroniphalus 
Brookei  being  especially  deserving  of  notice. 

At  Five  Mile  Canon,  near  Virginia  City,  Nevada,  Dr.  Meade 
Edwards  states  that  there  is  an  enormously  thick  stratum  of 
Diatomaceje,  which  is  ground  in  extensive  mills,  and  sold  in  con- 
siderable quantities  as  "  Electro-silicon  polishing  powder." 

Ehrenberg,  speaking  of  the  vastness  of  some  of  these  deposits, 
draws  our  attention  to  one  occurring  on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia 
River,  in  North  America : — "  The  Columbia,  in  its  course  at  Place 
da  Camp,  runs  between  two  precipices  composed  of  porcelain 
clay,  500  feet  thick,  covered  with  a  layer  of  basalt,  on  which  some 
volcanic  stratum  rests.  The  clay  strata  are  of  very  fine  grain,  and 
some  are  as  white  as  chalk.  Dr.  Bailey  has  shown  that  this 
apparently  argillaceous  layer  is  composed  entirely  of  fresh-water 
diatoms.  Its  perfect  purity  from  sand  proves  that  it  is  not  a  drift. 
By  its  immense  thickness  of  500  feet,  this  layer  of  biolithic  tripoli 
far  surpasses  any  similar  layers  elsewhere,  which  attain  ordinarily 
only  one  or  two  feet  in  thickness,  although  those  of  Luneberg  and 
BiHn  have  a  depth  of  forty  feet ;  some  beds  we  also  know  else- 
where having  seventy  feet ;  such  are  not  pure,  but  are  intersected 
by  layers   of  tufa,    or  other  material." 

In  turning  nearer  home  we  have  some  very  pure  fresh-water 
diatomaceous  deposits — that  of  Mull,  in  Scotland,  being  when  dry 
very  soft  and  pulverulent;  Premnay  Peak,  Glenshira  sand,  Lochs 
Canmor  and  Kennard  are,  perhaps,  the  best  of  the  series. 

In  Wales,  the  ancient  site  of  a  mountain  lake  at  Dogelly,  and 
Cwm  Bycham  furnish  us  with  supplies  of  much  the  same  character 
as  the  foregoing.  In  Ireland,  we  have  the  well-known  Mourne 
Mountains,  Bellahill,  Stony  Ford,  Upper  Bann^  Carrickfergus, 
and  Toome  Bridge.  These  deposits  are  all  well  worthy  of 
notice.  The  prevailing  forms  here  are  Campylodiscus  Hibernica^ 
Surirella  nobilis^  Cymatopleura  Hibernica,  Cocconema  fiisiforma^ 
Pin7iularia  viridis^  Gomphonema  constrida^  and  one  or  two 
forms  of  Melosira. 

The  borings  made  by  the  late  Mr.  Okeden,  at  Neyland,  a  creek 
near  Milford  Haven,  Pembrokeshire,  at  a  depth  of  thirty  or  forty 
feet,  revealed  diatomaceous  earths,  very  rich,  in  the  remains  both 
of  fresh -water  and    marine  species;  but  I  do  not   know   of  an 


o 


PREPARATION   OF    THE   DIATOMACE^.  14* 

instance  where  a  distinctly  marine  fossil  deposit  has  been  found 
in  England. 

For  the  collection  of  living  species,  Mr.  Norman,  of  Hull,  has 
supplied  us  with  the  following  hints  : — The  most  interesting  forms 
occur  in  salt  water,  especially  in  shallow  lagoons,  salt-water  marshes, 
estuaries  of  rivers,  and  pools  left  by  the  tide.  Their  presence  in 
any  abundance  is  shown  by  the  colours  they  impart  to  the  marine 
plants  to  which  they  are  attached  ;  or  when  found  on  mud,  by  the 
yellowish-brown  film  they  form  on  the  surface,  and  which  if  removed 
with  a  spoon  will  be  found  to  be  a  very  pure  deposit.  Such  col- 
lections are  best  put  at  once  in  bottles,  with  a  few  drops  of  Carbolic 
acid  ;  or  they  may  be  partially  dried  between  pieces  of  tinfoil. 
Capital  gatherings  are  also  obtainable  by  carefully  scraping  the 
brownish  coloured  layers  from  mooring  posts,  or  the  piles  of 
wharves  and  jetties. 

Marine  gatherings  contain  by  far  the  most  beautiful  varieties  of 
the  diatomaceae ;  our  own  coasts  furnish  us  with  some  extremely 
interesting  forms,  particularly  Lamlash  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  lonely 
Arran,  Dunvegan,  and  various  parts  of  the  Island  of  Skye.  But 
for  immense  diversification  of  species  the  American  marine 
gatherings  far  outstrip  us  in  richness,  colour,  and  rarity.  That  of 
Pensacola,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  contains  amongst  other  rather 
rare  ioxuis^Aulisais  pruinostis,  A.  coelatus^A.  radiatics,  A.  Hardman- 
7iican2is,  ajid  A.  Stockhardti.  The  Campylodisci  are  C.  echeneis^ 
C.  imperialism  C.  ccrebrecostatus^  var.  speciosa,  and  C.  imperialis.  I 
must  not  omit  a  reference  to  another  gathering,  viz..  Mobile  Bay, 
Alabama.  One  slide  of  this  has  been  proved  to  contain  196 
varieties ;  and  out  of  that  number  seventy-two  were  different 
species  of  Navicula.  Mr.  McNeill,  of  Mobile,  has  recently  dis- 
covered in  this  deposit  a  most  interesting  new  diatom,  which  it  is 
proposed  to  call  Triphyllopelta  Mobilimsis^  from  its  presenting 
when  dry  the  peculiar  appearance  of  the  form  of  a  tri-lobed 
clover  leaf  on  the  disc,  caused  by  three  inflations.  There  are  no 
rays,  and  the  markings  consist,  according  to  my  correspondent, 
Dr.  Engel,  of  Virginia,  in  coarse  radiating  granules  resembling 
faintly  Actiiiocylus  subtilis  ;  being  both  radiating  and  concentric. 

Mr.  Ralf  gives  us  some  very  useful  hints  as  to  the  collection 
of  marine  species  and  their  habitats,  which  are  as  follows  : — On 


144  ON    THE  COLLECTION   AND 

Algae  Cocconeis,  Acnanthes,  Striafella,  Tabellaria^  Grammatophora^ 
Ist/wiia,  PodosphcEiiia^  and  RJiipidophora.  In  salt  marshes  we 
shall  obtain  Amphipleura  and  Melosira^  whilst  in  shady  situa- 
tions Cai7ipylodiscus  and  Coschwdisais  abound.  The  sides  of 
ditches  in  marshes  are  often  covered  with  various  species  of 
Surirella,  Navicida^  Fleurosigma,  Auiphiprora,  and  Amphoi'a. 

Some  i^\yi  Diatomacese  are  peculiarly  autumnal,  as  Hcemocladia 
Martiana^  Berkleya  fragilis,  Dickeia  piimata^  and  Striatella  uni- 
pundata. 

In  clear  running  fresh-water  ditches,  the  plants  and  stones  often 
have  long  streams  of  yellowish-brown  slimy  matter  adhering  to 
them,  generally  composed  almost  entirely  of  filamentous  species,  as 
Schizonema  and  Mtcro??tega. 

The  layers  of  Diatomaceous  fronds  on  the  surface  of  mud,  are, 
according  to  Pritchard,  often  covered  with  bead-like  bubbles  of 
oxygen,  which  from  time  to  time  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  carry  up  with  them  some  of  the  deposit  in  the  form  of  a 
scum,  and  which  may  be  readily  skimmed  off  the  surface  of  the 
pond  with  an  ordinary  iron  spoon,  nearly,  if  not  quite,  free  from 
mud  and  other  impurities. 

Good  and  rare  specimens  may  be  obtained  from  the  stomachs 
of  Holothuridians,  Ascidians,  and  Molluscs,  which  inhabit  deep 
water,  and  are  often  thrown  ashore  after  a  gale.  All  that  is 
required  is  to  dry  them  thoroughly,  and  afterwards  submit  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  to  dissection. 

To  those  collectors  who  are  resident  inland,  I  would  suggest 
that  the  liquid  in  the  tinned  oysters  sold  by  Messrs.  Lazenby  and 
Son,  should  be  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  deposit  cleaned.  The 
results  will  give  some  beautiful  spheres  of  Coscinodiscus  and 
other  equally  interesting  forms. 

The  washing  of  oyster  shells  also  furnish  us  with  Rhabdonema^ 
Melosira,  E7idictya^  and  many  well-known  marine  forms.  The  fact 
of  the  Diatomacese  rendering  themselves  apparent  to  the  unaided 
vision  by  their  great  accumulation,  and  the  discolouration  of  the 
water  they  inhabit  is  illustrated  by  Melosira  ochracece,  which  occurs 
in  most  chalybeate  waters ;  also  by  Goinphonenia  gemijtattwi, 
which  forms  a  brown  deposit  on  rocks  in  summer  ;  the  same  may 
be  said  of  Syiiedra  ulna  Schizonema  in  swift-running  streams. 


PREPARATION    OF   THE   DIATOMACEiE.  145 

Mr.  Norman  has  furnished  us  with  the  following  interesting 
particulars  concerning  the  growth  of  Campylodisciis  costatiis.  He 
says  : — In  the  early  part  of  the  spring  of  1856  I  made  a  gathering 
of  Diatoms  from  the  Spring  ditch,  Hull.  Although  I  met  with  a 
few  frustules  of  the  species  named,  I  did  not  think  it  of  sufficient 
interest  to  boil  in  acid  for  mounting  ;  and  the  phial  containing 
them  was  left  in  the  window  of  my  laboratory  during  the  ensuing 
summer.  Some  time  in  the  autumn  I  had  occasion  to  make  use 
of  this  bottle,  when  I  noticed  the  surface  of  the  deposit,  and  the 
sides  of  the  bottle  covered  with  a  dense  brown  growth  of  diatoms. 
On  further  examination  I  found  an  immense  colony  of  Campy- 
lodisciis^ which  gave  by  preparation  some  beautifully  pure  slides. 
When  removing  the  upper  layer,  I  purposely  left  a  few  of  the 
frustules  in  the  bottle,  which  was  placed  in  the  window  as  before. 
These  have  again  increased  to  a  great  extent,  and  now  they  appear 
to  thrive  in  perfect  health. 

Remarkably  pure  gatherings  may  be  obtained  also  by  Reinicke's 
method,  the  principle  underlying  which  is  based  on  the  extra- 
ordinary property  possessed  by  the  Diatomaceae  of  pressing 
towards  the  light.  A  quantity  of  mud  on  which  the  fronds  of  these 
little  organisms  are  growing  is  spread  on  a  common  dinner-plate, 
and  upon  this  is  laid  a  piece  of  thin  muslin,  and  a  little  water 
poured  upon  the  whole,  that  it  may  be  entirely  covered.  The 
plate  is  now  placed  in  the  window  of  a  room  where  the  rays  of 
light  fall  full  upon  it,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  the  tiny 
frustules  of  the  Diatoms  will  begin  to  creep  through  the  muslin 
and  form  a  thick  growth  entirely  free  from  earthy  matter. 

This  plan  can,  however,  only  be  carried  on  with  certain  species 
whose  movements  are  free  and  active,  as  Pleurosigina^  NitzcJiia^ 
CoccoJiema,  and  Navicida.  Gerstenberger's  plan  is  so  much  after 
this  character  that  it  will  be  needless  to  repeat  it.  Successive 
crops  of  Diatomace?e  may  be  taken  at  short  intervals,  provided  the 
conditions  of  nature  are  complied  with,  by  the  creation  of  an 
artificial  spring  and  winter,  which  is  simply  done  by  allowing  the 
mud  on  which  they  are  growing  to  become  nearly  dry,  then  pouring 
fresh  water  over  it,  and  once  more  it  will  be  covered  with  new  and 
luxuriant  microscopic  life.     By  some  such  methods  as  these  appUed 


146  ON  THE   COLLECTION  OF   DIATOMACEiE. 

to  those  of  Reinicke's  and  Gerstenberger's,  a  poor  gathering  may 
ultimately  become  a  very  rich  one. 

Another  mode  of  collection  is  by  skimming  the  surface  of  the 
sea  with  a  very  fine  muslin  or  calico  net,  having  a  wide-mouthed 
bottle  tied  to  an  opening  in  the  end,  and  towed  at  the  stern  of  a 
boat.  By  this  means  that  species  of  Rhizosolejiia,  which  bears  his 
name,  was  found  in  dense  masses  by  Mr.  Shrubsole,  whilst  on  a 
marine  excursion  off  the  Isle  of  Sheppy ;  and  other  beautiful 
forms  have  been  similarly  discovered  by  diligent  searchers. 

The  material  brought  up  by  the  sounding-line  often  furnishes 
subjects  for  study,  more  especially  the  Diatomacese,  Foraminifera, 
and  Polycystina.  The  dredging  operations  of  H. M.Ss.  " Challenger" 
and  "Porcupine"  rendered  immense  service  in  this  particular,  and 
I  think  the  readers  of  our  journal  would  not  find  it  a  difficult  task 
to  imitate  their  proceedings  on  a  smaller  scale  during  the  ensuing 
summer.  Some  four  or  five  pieces  of  rope-yarn,  with  the  ends 
unravelled,  attached  to  a  short  iron  bar,  and  this  in  turn  fastened 
to  a  line  of  sufficient  length  and  strength,  will  furnish  a  dredge  of 
much  the  same  character  as  that  employed  by  the  naturalists  of 
H.M.S.  "Porcupine."  When  dragged  over  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
the  rope-yarn  becomes  filled  with  objects  of  interest;  and  on 
carefully  washing  will  yield  a  rich  harvest  as  a  reward  for  the 
labour  expended. 

Enough,  however,  has  been  said  on  the  collection  of  the 
Diatomacese ;  and  I  would  merely  add,  in  closing  the  first  part  of 
my  subject,  that  whilst  general  instructions  are  useful,  it  is  not 
advisable  implicitly  to  follow  an  arbitrary  rule  as  to  the  habitat  of 
any  distinct  species,  remembering  after  all  that — experientia  docet. 


Journal   of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3. Pl.lS. 


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[  147  ] 

Some  ifurtber  IReaearcbce  on  ZixUfc^. 

By  a.  Hammond,  F.L.S. 


Plate  1 6. 

IN  the  following  pages  I  purpose  to  correct  some  statements 
made  in  my  former  papers  on  this  interesting  anneUd,*  and  to 

add  some  new  facts,  the  result  of  more  extended  observations 
on  the  economy  of  these  worms.     I   may  state  that  in  order  to 
obtain  the  Tubifex  for  observation  I  adopt  the  following  plan,  viz., 
I  take  a  small  garden-trowel,  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  a  shallow 
hand-net,  composed  of  a  piece  of  wire  bent  into  a  hoop,  about  six 
inches    in    diameter,    and    covered  with    a  piece  of    net,   such 
as   is  used  for  ladies'  caps,  and  made  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
show  but  little  slack  when  filled  with  a  small  quantity  of  the  fine 
mud  in   which  the  worm  lives.     The  mud  containing  them  is 
taken  up  with  the  trowel  and  placed  in  the  net ;  when  the  latter  is 
agitated  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  mud  will  be  washed  away 
through  the  meshes  of  the  net,  leaving  nearly  all  the  worms  it 
contained,  together  with  probably  sticks,   leaves,  and  other  debris, 
on  the  upper  surface.     After  having  got  rid  of  as  much  of  the  mud 
as  is  possible,  the  net  is  turned  upside-down  over  the  bottle,  which 
should  previously  have  been  partially  filled  with  water,  and  the  con- 
tents washed  into  it ;  the  process  being  repeated  until  a  sufficient 
number  have  been  obtained.     The  chief  object  at  this  time  to  be 
aimed  at  is  to  get  rid  of  the  mud  ;   small  sticks  and  stones  will 
not  matter.    On  reaching  home,  our  captives  should  be  turned  out 
into  a  plate  or  shallow  dish,  and  covered  with  about  half  an  inch 
of  clean  water,  where  they  will  live  for  two  or  three  weeks,  or 
perhaps  longer ;  giving  ample  opportunities  for  watching  them. 
If  the  water  should   become  thick  or  muddy,  pour  it  gently  off 
over  the  edge  of  the  plate  (the  worms  will  not  follow) ;  and  fill 
up  again  with  fresh  water. 

On  reviewing  my  first  paper,  which  appeared  in  Vol.  I.  of  this 
Journal,  I  may  state  that  I  believe  the  tubes  there  spoken  of  as 
having  been  found  on  the  surface  of  the  mud,  were  undoubtedly 

*  See  Vol.  I.,  p.  14,  and  Vol.  II.,  p.  165  of  this  Journal. 


148  SOME    FURTHER    RESEARCHES 

the  work  of  the  Blood-worms,  or  larvae  of  Chironomtis^  and  not  of 
Tub  if  ex  ;  and  I  can  only  repeat  the  statement  in  my  note  (Vol.  I., 
p.  15)  that  I  have  never  been  able  to  see  the  tubes  stated  to  be 
made  by  the  latter.  I  cannot  allow  that  the  tracks  which  the 
worms  sometimes  make,  and  which  may  remain  for  a  few 
seconds  after  their  passage  through  the  mud,  are  tubes,  any 
more  than  that  the  foot-prints  of  a  man  are  his  dwelling  place. 
These  worm  tracks  show  no  consistency,  and  disappear  almost 
immediately  with  the  least  disturbance  of  the  water,  or  even  with- 
out it.     A  tube  must  necessarily  have  some  consistency.  * 

With  regard  to  the  relations  of  the  two  fluids  found  in  these 
and  other  annelids,  viz.,  the  red  vascular  fluid  and  the  colourless 
corpusculated  fluid  occupying  the  perivisceral  cavity,  it  may  be 
interesting  to  quote  Prof.  Lankester  on  this  subject.  He  says  : — 
"  It  is  not  yet  apparent  which  of  the  two  fluids  should  be  called 
blood,  and  recognised  as  the  homologue  of  that  fluid  in  the 
vertebrata.  .  .  .  The  following  view^  which  tends  to  explain 
this  matter,  and  place  it  in  a  clear  light,  is  put  forward  by  my 
friend.  Prof  Busk.  In  vertebrata  the  blood  can  be  separated  into 
two  parts — the  red  corpuscles  and  the  clear  white  plasma  with  the 
white  corpuscles.  The  function  of  the  red  corpuscles,  it  is  generally 
admitted,  is  to  carry  oxygen  ;  it,  in  fact,  is  respiratory.  The 
function  of  the  plasma  on  the  other  hand,  with  its  white  corpuscles, 
is  simply  nutrient.  Assuming  that  this  is  a  correct  view  of  the 
case,  since  it  is  supported  by  many  and  conclusive  facts,  and, 
indeed,  is  very  generally  conceded,  let  us  turn  to  the  Annelida. 
We  find  a  red  fluid,  undoubtedly  devoted  to  respiratory  purposes, 
in  many  genera,  and  a  colourless  plasma,  with  white  corpuscles, 
bathing  all  the  organs  of  the  body.  The  conclusion  is,  obviously 
enough,  that  the  red  vascular  fluid  represents  simply  the  corpuscles, 
whilst  the  colourless,  corpusculated  fluid  is  homologous  with  the 
white  plasma  of  vertebrated  animals.  It  would  be  unsafe  to  draw 
any  conclusions  as  to  the  respective  functions  of  the  fluids  from 
this  comparison.  The  functions  of  the  two  fluids  in  the  annelida 
have  yet  to  be  much  studied  ;  all  that  zoologists  at  present  appear 
to  be  agreed  upon  being  that,  the  red  vascular  fluid  is  the  chief 

*  If  any  of  our  readers  can  give  me  any  information  on  the  subject  of 
these  tubes,  I  shall  be  extremely  obliged. 


ON  TUBIFEX. 


149 


medium  through  which  respiration  is  effected  ;  how  far  this  function 
is  shared  by  the  corpusculated  fluid,  or  how  far  nutrition  is  also  a 
part  of  the  function  of  the  red  fluid,  are  questions  to  which  no 
decisive  reply  has  yet  been  offered,  though  the  considerations 
above  adduced  would  tend  (perhaps  erroneously)  to  the  conclusion 
that  respiration  belongs  to  the  one  and  nutrition  to  the  other 
exclusively.  In  speaking,  then,  of  these  two  fluids,  I  prefer 
adopting  such  names  as  '  red  '  and  '  colourless,'  or  '  vascular  '  and 
'  perivisceral '  fluids,  to  using  the  terms  '  pseudohsemal '  or  '  chy- 
laqueous.' "  * 

A  (qw  words  may  here  be  said  about  the  integument.  Gegen- 
baur,  in  speaking  of  the  integument  of  the  Vermes,  says  : — "  The 
proper  integument  is  formed,  as  a  rule,  of  a  layer  of  cefls,  the 
elements  of  which  are  often  so  slightly  separated  that  they  form  a 
syncitium.  f  This  layer  corresponds  to  an  epidermis,  which  in 
the  Annelida  is  covered  by  a  homogeneous  cuticle,  which  varies 
greatly  in  character,  and  is  a  product  of  the  secretion  of  the 
epidermic  cells."  This  seems,  so  far  as  the  descriptive  portion  of 
it  is  concerned,  to  be  a  correct  description  of  the  integument  of 
the  Limicolous  Oligoch^ta,  which  I  have  examined ;  but  the  use 
of  the  terms  epidermis  and  cuticle,  so  far  as  they  may  imply 
homologies,  is  a  point  on  which  some  confusion,  if  not  difference 
of  opinion,  would  appear  to  exist,  and  which  I  should  like  to  point 
out,  even  if  I  cannot  settle.  D'Udekem,  as  I  have  already  stated, 
describes  the  integument  as  consisting  of  a  delicate  epidermis,  and 
of  a  chorion  intimately  united  to  the  muscular  layer.  Now,  from  his 
further  description,  it  is  evident  that  the  epidermis  of  D'Udekem 
is  the  homogeneous  cuticle  of  Gegenbaur  and  his  chorion 
(corium  ?)  the  cellular  epidermis  of  the  latter.  The  same  reversal 
of  the  term  epidermis  appears  in  Lankester's  description  of  the 
integument  of  the  Earthworm,  t  where  ^  epidermis '  is  again  applied 
to  the  external  structureless  layer ;  the  cellular  layer  beneath  it, 

*  The  Anatomy  of  the  Earthworm,  by  E.  Ray  Lankester,  Journal  Micr. 
Sci.,  Vol.  v.,  New  Series,  page  lOO. 

t  A  syncitium  is  that  condition  of  living  matter  wherein  nuclei  are 
scattered  in  a  mass  of  protoplasm  without  the  protoplasm  itself  being  marked 
off  into  separate  cells  corresponding  to  the  nuclei. 

t  The  Anatomy  of  the  Earthworm,  by  E.  Ray  Lankester,  Journal  :\Iicr. 
Sci.,  New  Series,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  260. 

M 


150  SOME  FURTHER  RESEARCHES 

which  it  is  to  be  noted  is  pigmentary  and  vascular,  having  received 
no  distinctive  designation  that  would  indicate  its  homologies. 

Now,  it  may  be  objected  to  this  that  the  term  epidermis  is 
applied  in  Vertebrates  to  the  external  cellular  epithelium  of  the 
body,  and  that  the  term  cuticle,  employed  by  Gegenbaur,  is  the 
more  correct  to  apply  to  a  homogeneous  secreted  covering.  At  the 
same  time,  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  subjacent  cellular 
layer  in  the  Earthworm  and  in  Limnodrilus  is  also  vascular,  a  fact 
which  goes  far  to  remove  it  from  the  class  of  epithelial  structures, 
and  should  make  us  rather  regard  it  as  the  homologue  of  the 
dermis  of  the  higher  animals.  In  which  case  the  external  struc- 
tureless layer  is,  so  far  as  position  goes,  truly  an  epidermis,  but 
it  is  difficult  so  to  regard  it  without  admitting  that  it  is  not  a 
secretion,  but  that  it  is  of  cellular  origin,^  which  seems  quite 
opposed,  not  only  to  my  observations,  no  trace  of  cells  being 
discoverable  in  it,  but  also  to  the  statement  of  Gegenbaur,  who 
says  that  in  some  of  the  annelids,  pore-canals,  so  distinctive  of 
the  cuticular  structures  of  insects,  may  be  seen  in  it.  Moreover, 
I  am  not  quite  sure  whether  certain  mucous  pores,  which 
Lankester  afterwards  describes  in  the  Earthworm,  are  not  of  the 
nature  of  pore-canals. 

The  subject  seems  to  raise  the  whole  question  of  the  origin  of 
the  cuticular  layers  of  the  Annulosa,  and  a  further  question 
appears  to  arise  with  respect  to  the  annelids,  viz.,  what  provision 
exists  for  the  growth  of  the  structureless  layer  (if  absolutely 
structureless  it  be),  which  we  find  in  them.  Insects  and  Crustacea 
have  a  provision  in  their  periodical  ecdysis  for  a  growth  of  their 
coverings,  to  keep  pace  with  that  of  the  body,  but  no  such  pro- 
vision exists  in  the  worms.  The  cuticular  coverings  of  the  latter, 
however,  are  not  to  be  compared  for  hardness  and  rigidity  with 
those  of  the  former,  and  where  it  is  very  soft,  the  growth  of  the 
cuticle  may  be,  perhaps,  compared  to  that  of  the  cell-wall  keeping 
pace  with  that  of  its  contents.  In  some  worms,  however,  the 
cuticle  is  too  thick  and  consistent  to  allow  us  to  suppose  it  to 
enlarge  in  this  way ;  nor  do  I  quite   think  it   is   the  case  with 

*  Lowne  (Anat.  Blow  Fly,  p.  lo)  ascribes  a  cellular  origin  to  the  "cuticle 
or  epidermis  "  of  insects,  saying  distinctly  that  it  is  formed  of  "  coalesced 
cells." 


ON  TUBIFEX.  151 

Tubifex.  The  cuticular  and  cellular  layers  of  Tiihifex  are  best  seen 
in  the  glandular  clitellus  which  surrounds  the  generative  segments. 
At  the  period  of  maturity,  these  cells  acquire  a  far  greater 
development  than  those  of  other  parts  ;  they  swell  out  and  distend 
the  cuticle  from  the  muscular  layer,  and  many  of  them  are  character- 
ised by  a  granular  appearance,  as  shown  in  Plate  i6,  Fig.  i. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  I  have  described  the  setse  as  being 
placed  in  pouches  or  invaginations  of  the  epidermis.  *  D'Udekem 
also  describes  them  as  thus  placed,  but  further  examination  leads 
me  to  reconsider  this  statement  There  is,  I  think,  a  common 
envelope  surrounding  the  basis  of  all  the  setae  in  a  fascicle,  and  it 
gives  strongly  the  impression  of  an  invagination  of  the  integument- 
ary layers  ;  but  on  carefully  observing  the  movements  of  the  setse 
this  impression  is  very  much  weakened,  for  they  do  not  seem  at  all 
to  issue  from  a  common  orifice,  but  each  appears  to  penetrate  the 
cuticle  by  a  separate,  very  minute  aperture  or  pore.  If  we  con- 
ceive a  piece  of  board  in  which  are  five  or  six  holes  placed  in  a 


row,  thus  I  o  o  o  o  o  I  and  each  hole  having  a  stick  passed  through 
it.  Now,  if  we  bring  together  the  ends  of  the  sticks  thus  protruding 
and  grasp  them  with  the  hand  and  move  them  about,  we  shall 
have  a  fair  idea  of  the  movement  of  the  set^  in  a  fascicle.  Within 
the  common  envelope  each  seta  is,  I  think,  enclosed  in  its  own 
separate  cell,  of  which  it  is  a  secreted  product,  in  the  same  way 
as  the  cuticle  is  regarded  by  Gegenbaur  as  the  secreted  product  of 
the  epidermic  cells,  f 

That  this 'is,  indeed,  the  case  with  the  new  setae  which  one 
constantly  meets  with  in  course  of  formation  beside  the  older  ones 
of  the  fascicle,  is,  I  think,  certain,  as  the  cell  surrounding  the  new 
seta  is  rendered  visible  from  the  more  dense  and  granular 
character  of  its  contents,  and  its  light-brown  colour.  Within  this 
cell,  the  new  seta  may  be  seen,  at  first  only  its  forked  tip,  and  this 
tip  of  the  full  size  that  it  is  to  have.  Subsequent  growth  takes 
place  by  increment  at  the  base ;  the  central  swollen  portion  is 
the  next  to  appear  ;  and  finally  the  basal  portion  gradually  acquires 

*  Vol.  I.,  page  17  of  this  Journal. 

t  Gegenbaur,  Comp.  Anat.,  Bell's  Translation,  p,  139,  says: — The  setoe 
must  be  regarded  as  differentiations  of  the  integument  of  the  class  of  cuticular 
formations. " 


152  SOME  FURTHER    RESEARCHES 

its  full  length.  If  we  consider  that  the  process  of  cuticular  secre- 
tion is  one  that  occurs  on  the  external  surface  of  the  secreting 
epithelial  layer,  it  will  be  reasonable  to  think  that  the  secretion  of 
a  seta  (as  an  analagous  process)  also  takes  place  on  the  surface  of 
the  cell  by  which  it  is  produced.  Now,  to  all  appearance  the  seta 
is  placed  in  the  midst  of  the  cell  (see  Fig.  2).  I  think,  however,  that 
the  cell-wall  is  really  invaginated,  the  invagination  taking  the  form 
of  the  forked  tip  of  the  seta,  and  that  the  cuticular  deposit  takes 
place  on  the  surface  of  this  invagination,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  As 
the  seta  grows,  the  invagination  deepens,  the  tip  of  the  seta 
advances  within  the  cell,  and  more  cuticular  substance  is  deposited 
at  the  base,  i.e.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  invagination.  In  time  the 
growing  seta  either  forces  its  way  through  the  wall  of  the  cell 
which  gave  it  birth,  or  which  is,  I  think,  more  likely,  the  cell-wall 
adheres  closely  around  it,  as  in  Fig.  5.  It  ultimately  also  penetrates 
the  cuticular  covering  of  the  worm. 

With  regard  to  the  method  of  oviposition,  I  am  enabled  to  state 
that  the  egg  capsules  which  I  have  drawn  in  Plate  34,  Fig.  16,  of 
vol.  ii.,  are  formed  around  the  worm,  i.e.,  around  the  glandular 
clitellus  which  encircles  the  generative  segments.     After  its  forma- 
tion, the  ova  and  spermatozoa  are  passed  into  it,  and  it  is  then 
slipped  over  the  head  of  the  worm,  and  thus  becomes  detached  ; 
the  ends  becoming  closed  in  some  unknown  manner.     How  the 
ova  make  their  way  into  it,  i.e.,  whether  they  find  exit  by  an  oviduct 
surrounding  the  vas  deferens,  as  I  have  stated  was  Claparede's 
opinion,  or  by  any  other  method,  I  do  not  as  yet  know  ;  but  the 
presence  of  spermatophores  in  the  seminal  receptacles  must  be 
regarded  as  the  normal  condition  of  sexual  maturity — i.e.,  they  are 
introduced  into  these  cavities,  they  remain  there,  and  after  a  period 
of  vital  activity  they  perish  there,  unless  called  into  functional 
activity  by  the  act  of  oviposition,  when  they  find  their  way  into 
the  capsule  as  it  passes  over  the  mouth  of  the  receptacle,  and  so 
obtain  access  to  the  ova.    Whether  they  enter  the  capsule,  however, 
as  spermatophores,  or  whether  the  spermatic  filaments  from  them 
only  do  so,  remains  yet  in  uncertainty. 

I  have  not  yet  been  able  to  follow  out  the  various  stages  of 
embryonic  development,  but  have  on  one  or  two  occasions  seen 
the  birth  of  young  worms,  or  rather  their  escape  from  the  capsule, 


ON  TUBIFEX.  153 

previous  to  which,  however,  they  have  ruptured  the  vitelline  mem- 
brane in  which  each  is  enclosed  (see  Fig.  lo),  and  may  be  seen 
actively  moving  about  within  the  capsule,  seeking  for  an  exit  which 
they  at  length  effect  by  breaking  off  one  of  the  soft  projecting 
poles  (see  Fig.  ii).  They  are  then  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
long  (see  Fig.  13),  and  of  a  white  colour ;  the  alimentary  canal, 
which  at  this  time  occupies  nearly  all  the  space  within  the  body, 
being  filled  with  yelk  spherules,  a  provision  apparently  for  their 
sustenance  till  sufficiently  grown  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The 
vascular  system  at  this  time  is  difficult  to  detect,  not,  I  think,  that 
the  vessels  do  not  exist,  but  from  the  absence  of  colour,  as  yet, 
in  their  contents.  The  pulsating  hearts,  however,  in  the  eighth 
(seventh  setegerous)  segment  have  a  faint  tinge.  The  hooked 
setae  are  present ;  one  or  two  only  in  a  fascicle  ;  but  the  dorsal 
capillary  setae  are  slow  in  making  their  appearance,  and  cannot  be 
detected  till  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  after  birth.  The  young  worms 
at  first  consist  of  about  thirty  segments.  Others  are  subsequently 
added  by  the  subdivision  of  the  last  segment.  There  are  no 
indications  of  the  reproductive  organs,  for  the  segments  in  which 
they  are  subsequently  found  present  no  characters  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  others. 

I  have  recently  been  somewhat  interested  by  the  occurrence  in 
these  worms  of  a  parasite,  Gregariiia  scenuridis,  in  an  encysted 
condition  in  the  matrix  with  the  ova,  and  in  the  segments  anterior 
to  this.  On  the  first  occasion  of  finding  them  I  was  greatly 
puzzled  with  them,  thinking  I  had  found  some  peculiar  con- 
dition of  development  in  the  ova  of  the  worm.  I  soon,  how- 
ever, recognised  the  characteristic  pseudo-naviculae  in  the  cysts,  and 
a  reference  to  Gegenbaur  at  once  solved  the  difficulty.  The  cysts 
of  this  parasite  are  always  found  in  the  matrix,  together  with  the 
ova;  their  presence  there  is,  however,  destructive  to  the  latter,  which 
either  undergo  atrophy,  or  do  not  come  to  maturity.  A  few  remains 
of  yelk  may  sometimes  be  seen,  but  never  fully-matured  eggs,  the 
nutritive  juices  which  should  have  nourished  them  being  apparently 
used  up  for  the  development  of  the  parasite.  A  drawing  of  the 
cysts  is  given  in  two  different  conditions  in  Figs.  6  and  7,  and  of 
the  parasite  itself  in  the  act  of  conjugation  from  Gegenbaur  in  Fig. 
9.  The  following  extract  ^  will  explain  the  matter  : — "  The  mode 
*  Gegenbaur's  Comp,  Anat.,  Bell's  Translation,  p.  87. 


154  SOME  FURTHER  RESEARCHES 

of  reproduction  (of  the  Protozoa)  is  most  exactly  known  in  the 
Gregarince.  As  a  rule,  multiplication  commences  by  the  con- 
cresence  of  two  individuals  ;  this  generally  occurs  very  early,  so 
that  the  two  individuals  which  form  one  body — the  anterior  end 
of  one  being  attached  to  the  posterior  end  of  the  other  (Fig.  9) — > 
go  on  growing  for  some  time ;  or  conjugation  may  only  take  place 
later  when  the  forms  are  mature.  After  this  comes  a  condition  of 
rest,  accompanied  by  encystation,  in  which  the  two  individuals 
form  a  rounded  body  with  a  partition  between  them.  Then  the 
partition  disappears,  and  the  substance  of  the  body,  and  also  the 
nucleus,  break  up  into  an  amorphous  mass,  from  which  numerous 
vesicles  gradually  arise.  From  these  latter  a  number  of  germ  cor- 
puscles, called  Pseudo-naviculse  (see  Fig.  8),  on  account  of  their 
shape,  are  formed.  These  gradually  fill  the  whole  cyst,  and  each 
gives  rise  to  ia  single  very  small  organism,  consisting  of  proto- 
plasm solely,  and  this  being  without  a  nucleus  corresponds  to  a 
cystoid.  Each  of  these  structures  moves  about  in  an  amseboid 
manner,  and  is  gradually  differentiated  into  a  young  Gregarina^ 
after  which  a  nucleus  is  differentiated  in  its  interior,  and  it  becomes 
limited  externally  by  a  cortical  layer.  Although  conjugation  has 
no  exclusive  signification  in  bringing  about  these  processes,  as 
separate  Gregarince  are  also  able  to  pass  through  these  reproductive 
processes  in  just  the  same  way,  yet  it  is  not  the  less  important.  It 
points,  at  least  in  the  cases  where  it  exists,  to  the  necessity  of  two 
individuals  to  bring  about  reproduction.  It  is  consequently  a 
phenomenon  preliminary  to  sexual  differentiation." 

The  occurrence  of  Gregarinae  in  the  Earthworm  has  been 
familiar  to  me,  but  the  cysts  do  not  exhibit  the  partition  so 
characteristic  of  these. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    XVI. 


Ij'ig.  1. — Epithelial  and   cuticular    layers    from    the    integument    of 
Limnodrilus  Hoffmeisteri  at  the  period  of  sexual  maturity  ; 
CO,,    cuticle  ;  ee^  epithelial    cells  ;  mm^    circular  ;  and    i^-nlwl 
longitudinal  muscles, 
j^    2. —Group  of  set£e,  with  young  one  forming  within  cell. 


ON  TUBIFEX.  155 

Fig.  3. — Invagination  of  cell  to  form  seta  (diagrammatic). 
4  &  5. — Further  stages  of  ditto. 

6. — Gregarina  s?enuridis  encysted,  showing  partition. 
7. — Ditto,  ditto,  enclosing  vesicles. 
8.  — Pseudo-navicula. 

9. — Gregarina  saenuridis  in  act  of  conjugation  (Geg.)  ;  a  and  6, 
the  two  individuals  ;  c.c,  their  nuclei. 

10. — Young  worm  within  vitelline  membrane. 

11.  — Pole  of  capsule  with  end  broken  off  by  exit  of  young  worms. 

12.  — Capsule,  with  young  worms. 
13. — Young  worm,  immediately  after  its  escape  from  the  capsule. 


IResults  ot  a  /llMcroscoptcal  Jnvesttoation  of  tbe 
Hction  ot  Bmmonium  /iDoli^bbate  ant)  otber 
Cbemtcal  Hgents  on  tbe  Dascitlar  ant)  Cellular 
Tlissues  ot  about  120  Bitferent  plants. 

By  Thomas  Spearman  Ralph,  M.D.,  Pres.  Mic.  Soc,  Vict. 


THE  investigations  I  have  made  with  chemicals  on  Vegetal 
Tissues,  and  which  form  the  subject  of  my  present 
communication,  have  arisen  out  of  an  examination  of 
various  plants  with  reference  to  their  protoplasmic  cell-con- 
tents. Simultaneously  with  this,  I  was  carrying  on  an  enquiry 
after  further  evidence  of  the  presence  of  Bacilli  in  the  tissues  of 
living  plants,  a  subject  to  which  I  directed  attention  last  year  in 
May.  These  investigations  have  been  in  great  measure  closely 
related,  but  the  leading  feature  has  been  the  investigation  of  the 
action  of  chemicals  on  the  cell-contents  of  leaves.  With  regard 
to  Bacilli,  or  Bacterial  forms,  besides  their  occurrence  in  Vallis- 
neria  cells  (and  concurrent  with  the  phenomenon  of  cyclosis),  I 
have  met  with  these  organisms  in  A?iachartSy  and  in  the  cells  of 
Arimi  CEthiopium  (Richardia  ?),  Vinca  major  (variegated  form), 
Erythriiia^  and  in  the  leaves  of  Tea  after  infusion. 

The  experiments  on  protoplasm  recorded  by  Mr.  Gardner  in 
the  Qicart.  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science^  induced  me  to  make 
further  experiments,  and  briefly,  I  have  to  state,  I  have  employed 


156  ACTION  OF   AMMONIUM    MOLYBDATE,  ETC., 

several  agents  with  a  view  to  exhibit  the  contracted  condition  of 
the  protoplasm  in  vegetal  cells. 

The  best  plant  I  have  met  with,  and  one  well  suited  for  class 
demonstration,  is  the  Tradescantia  virgitiica,  or  American  Spider- 
wort.  The  cuticle  of  the  inferior  surface  of  the  leaf,  carefully 
peeled  off  and  treated  with  various  reagents,  readily  exhibits  the 
protoplasm  contracted  in  the  cells,  with  fine  fibrils  reaching  out  to 
the  cell-walls.  The  sepals,  also,  prepared  in  the  same  way,  exhi- 
bit this  condition  very  beautifully.  Arum  also  exhibits  these 
changes  very  well.  At  first,  I  used  the  Sulpho-Cyanide  of  Potas- 
sium, but  this  agent  acts  too  rapidly  in  most  cases,  unless  much 
diluted,  as  the  protoplasmic  mass  completely  detaches  itself  from 
the  cell-walls  and  assumes  a  globular  form,  without  presenting  any 
fibrils  connecting  it  to  the  cell-wall.  Another  plan  is  to  employ 
salt,  as  mentioned  by  Mr.  Gardner,  and  having  obtained  the 
change  in  the  protoplasm,  wash  out  the  salt  by  the  addition  of 
water  to  the  specimen,  and  then  add  a  solution  of  Ammonium 
Molybdate,  and  watch  the  effect. 

In  Tradescantia^  this  chemical  agent  usually  leads  to  a  feeble 
yellow  tinting  of  the  protoplasm ;  so  rendering  it  more  visible  in 
its  divided  form. 

Ammonium  Phosphate  also  exhibits  the  protoplasm  in  a  con- 
tracted state ;  so  also  the  Liquor  Sodae  Chlorinate  of  the  Brit. 
Pharmacopoeia,  when  diluted  to  one-tenth  with  water.  Sulpho- 
carbolate  of  Soda,  followed  by  the  Molybdate,  gives  a  tint  to  the 
protoplasm.  The  employment  of  the  Sulpho-Cyanide  is  well 
worth  trial,  as  when  this  substance  is  applied  to  the  epiderm  cells, 
apparently  possessing  no  contents,  a  large  globe  of  protoplasm  is 
seen  to  separate  itself  into  the  centre  of  the  cell. 

The  above-mentioned  use  of  Ammonium  Molybdate  led  me  to 
make  further  trial  of  its  chemical  action  on  the  cells  of  leaves ; 
and  in  consequence  I  have  obtained  some  curious  results  in  con- 
nection with  its  employment.  The  Molybdic  salt,  by  itself,  will 
generally  attack  the  hypoderm  (cells  beneath  the  epiderm),  and 
tinge  them  of  all  shades  of  orange,  from  the  palest  yellow  to  a 
deep-red  orange.  In  some  cases,  this  change  is  not  brought  out. 
In  others,  where  the  reaction  is  weak,  the  colouration  is  vividly 
brought  out  by  the  further  addition  of  Sulpho-Cyanide  of  Potas- 


ON  PLANT  TISSUES.  157 

sium.  Hence  we  have  plants  which  entirely  refuse  any  reaction  ; 
others  in  which  it  is  feeble,  and  becoming  decided  by  the  addition 
of  another  chemical ;  others,  again,  in  which  the  Molybdate  acts 
vigorously  alone.  In  a  few  instances,  there  seems  to  be  a  dif- 
ference in  colouration  between  the  upper  and  the  lower  epiderm. 

We  have,  during  many  years  past,  been  employing  aniline  dyes 
to  tinge  vegetal  cells,  and  have  at  length  succeeded  in  obtaining  a 
triple  or  multiple  staining  of  the  cells  of  some  plants.  Yet  these 
results,  to  my  mind,  are  not  of  the  nature  of  a  true  chemical 
reaction  in  cell-contents,  but  rather  a  staining  effect  upon  the  cell- 
walls;  the  cell-contents  appearing  to  have  been  done  away  with  in 
the  process  of  preparation. 

As  the  results  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  Molybdate  are  varied, 
so  in  measure  we  obtain  some  differentiation;  f6r,  in  some  in- 
stances, only  some  cells  appear  to  be  acted  on,  the  others  either 
refusing  to  react,  or  doing  so  very  slowly. 

Further,  the  chlorophyll  appears  in  some  cases  to  have  under- 
gone some  process  of  disintegration,  these  being  full  of  fine  yellow 
molecular  matter,  which  often  exhibits  molecular  or  swarming 
motion  for  a  time. 

The  colouration  in  some  cases  appears  to  be  affected  by  the 
addition  of  alcohol,  used  for  the  purpose  of  dehydrating  the  spe- 
cimen, but,  on  the  whole,  it  is  permanent,  and  will  bear  to  be 
mounted  in  Canada  Balsam.  When  mounted  in  Glycerine  jelly, 
some  of  these  specimens  make  fine  objects  for  examination,  the 
vascular  tissue  between  the  cells  taking  colour.  Still,  these  speci- 
mens do  not  come  up  to  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  a  neatly 
coloured  aniline  preparation — red  and  green,  etc. 

I  have  now  experimented  on  over  120  different  plants,  employ- 
ing various  parts,  such  as  portions  of  the  stem,  leaf-structure, 
hairs,  petals,  and  seeds,  with  varying  results ;  and  I  am  in  hopes 
this  mode  of  chemical  examination  may  lead  to  some  definite 
results,  when  the  experiments  have  embraced  several  hundred 
kinds  of  plants.  To  the  physiological  botanist  this  process  will 
prove  interesting  if  not  useful,  for  the  effect,  when  fully  obtained, 
presents  variations  which  are  very  pleasing  ;  and  inasmuch  as  the 
specimens  can  be  readily  prepared,  there  will  be,  I  think,  a  great 
advantage  in  making  a  fair   collection  of  such  objects.     I  am 


158  ACTION  OF    AMMONIUM  MOLYBDATE,  ETC., 

quite  unable  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  chemical  change  brought 
about — some  of  my  friends  suggesting  that  it  is  due  to  the  pre- 
sence of  phosphorus  in  some  form  of  combination ;  but  I  am 
inclined  to  regard  it  as  a  form  of  oxydation  of  the  cell-contents. 
I  give  the  results  of  my  observations  on  120  genera,  placing  them 
in  their  ordinal  relation  to  each  other,  the  sign  x  signifying  a 
decided  result  or  reaction ;  —  meaning  a  moderate  or  partial ;  and 
o,  no  change  worth  recording. 

The  plan  I  have  adopted  is  as  follows  : — I  obtain  the  cuticle  of 
a  leaf,  preferably  from  the  under  surface,  by  peeling  it  off,  or 
shaving  it  off  with  a  lancet  or  sharp  knife.  This  last  can  usually 
be  effected  without  much  difficulty ;  but  when  the  upper  cuticle  is 
required,  then  the  process  of  cutting  becomes  more  difficult.  If 
the  leaf  is  folded  over  the  finger  and  held  firmly,  the  lancet  will 
slice  off  a  thick  and  thin  portion  sufficient  for  observation.  I 
then  place  the  cuticle,  with  its  surface,  on  the  slide,  the  cut  por- 
tion uppermost,  and  applying  water,  I  add  a  small  drop  of 
Ammonium  Molybdate  solution,  and  watch  the  effect. 

Usually,  in  a  short  space  of  time,  one  notices  the  effect  of  the 
reagents  by  the  colour  produced  in  some  of  the  cells,  varying  from 
a  pale  lemon-yellow  to  a  deep  orange  tint.  This  colouration 
usually  first  appears  in  the  cells  of  the  epiderm,  and  spreads  to  the 
hypoderm,  or  next  layer  of  cells,  and  invades  the  cells  of  the  vas- 
cular portion  of  the  leaf  If  there  is  no  reaction,  or  one  that 
appears  uncertain,  I  add  a  drop  of  the  Sulpho-Cyanide  solution, 
and  often  the  colour  deepens.  When  I  wish  to  preserve  the  spe- 
cimen in  Canada  Balsam,  I  gradually  introduce  diluted,  and  then 
stronger  alcohol,  which  seems  to  precipitate  the  salt  in  a  resinous- 
looking  cloud,  and  which  I  remove  by  further  addition  of  alcohol, 
and  removing  the  specimen  to  a  clean  slide,  drop  on  the  Canada 
Balsam,  without  heat  if  possible.  In  some  cases,  I  first  alcoholise 
the  specimen  to  be  examined,  and  then  add  the  Molybdate,  and  I 
am  inclined  to  think  the  alcohol  acts  on  some  of  the  cells  as  to 
their  chemical  character,  and  that  when  the  Molybdate  takes 
effect,  it  does  so  only  on  those  cells  which  have  escaped  the  action 
of  the  alcohol,  as  the  coloured  cells  appear  to  be  fewer  compared 
with  other  specimens  of  the  same  leaf  differently  treated. 

I  consider  it  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  these  experiments  at 


ON  PLANT  TISSUES.  159 

some  future  time,  making  them  on  the  same  plants  during  varying 
conditions  of  growth  and  season,  so  that,  perhaps,  some  of  the 
plants  I  have  recorded  as  unaffected  may  react  when  experimented 
on  at  an  earher  or  later  stage  of  their  growth.  For  instance, 
some  months  ago  I  demonstrated  the  formation  of  acicular  crys- 
tals in  the  leaf  of  the  Brotera  mellifera,  after  heating  with  water. 
The  field  becoming  absolutely  full  of  these  crystals  resembling  the 
pappus  heads  of  a  Composite  flower ;  but  now  at  this  season,  when 
the  young  leaves  are  making  their  appearance,  I  can  get  no  such 
result. 

There  has  not  been  sufficient  time  to  extend  observations  on 
the  petals  of  various  plants,  but  I  believe  a  difference  will  be 
found  in  many ;  as,  for  instance,  these  organs  reacting  under  che- 
micals, but  the  hairs  of  the  same  plant  remaining  nearly,  if  not 
quite  unaffected  by  the  reagent. 

The  examination  of  seeds  will  prove  most  interesting,  as  well 
as  profitable,  and  experiments  in  this  direction  should  be  duly 
recorded  in  some  publication  devoted  to  natural  history. 

So  also  this  mode  of  chemical  treatment  may  be  extended  to 
the  ovules  of  plants,  and  perhaps  be  available  in  demonstrating 
the  action  of  pollen  tubes.  From  some  slight  observations,  I 
think  this  kind  of  reaction  should  be  extended  to  the  Fungi — I 
mean  to  epiphytal  and  entophytal  forms — so  as  to  endeavour  to 
trace  their  mycelia  in  the  living  tissues,  inasmuch  as  they  appear  to 
draw  their  nutrition  from  them,  and  their  myceHa^  may  yield  some 
colouration,  and  so  lead  to  their  more  ready  detection.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  experiment  on  the  Lichens,  nor  the  Algae.  Five 
kinds  of  Ferns  have  been  tried  with  differing  results. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  the  Ammonia  in  the  reagent  pro- 
duces the  changes  in  the  cells  ;  but  I  have  found  Potassium 
Molybdate  and  Sodium  Molybdate  quite  as  effective. 

Molybdic  Acid  alone  acts  feebly  in  some  cases,  but  by  the 
further  addition  of  Soda  or  Potassa  a  rapid  and  decided  reaction 
has  followed. 

I  consider  we  have  fair  evidence  of  the  colouration  being  due 
to  the  Molybdium.  The  general  mode  of  treatment  is  so  easy 
and  the  results  are  so  remarkable,  I  feel  satisfied  this  mode  of 
investigation  will  give  work  to  a  class  of  observers,  who,  not  being 


160  ACTION  OF    AMMONIUM    MOLYBDATE,  ETC., 

deeply  versed  in  phytological  lore,  may  yet  thereby  find  employ- 
ment and  scope  for  their  energies,  and  at  the  same  time  furnish 
materials  for  the  higher-trained  botanist  to  work  out. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  results.  Of  about  120  genera 
examined,  34  yield  no  results  under  the  action  of  Ammonium 
Molybdate,  either  alone  or  followed  by  Potassium  Sulpho-Cyanide. 
This  furnishes  a  fair  per  centage,  indicating  some  decided  chemi- 
cal difference  in  the  plants  experimented  on  : — 

34,    none. 

15,   partial. 

71,   complete. 

120. 

This  subject  of  investigation  is  a  large  one,  and  will  require 
the  co-operation  of  many  workers,  spread  over  several  seasons, 
before  reliable  results  can  be  obtained  as  to  any  ordinal  or  generic 
value  of  these  reactions.  Whole  families  appear  to  be  acted  on, 
as  the  Myrtacece.  and  Proteacece^  while  others  exhibit  breaks.  The 
Monocotyledons,  I  suspect,  will  prove  to  be  little  affected. 

I  have  arranged  the  plants  I  have  examined  in  some  general 
related  form,  but  I  think  it  well  to  indicate  what  plants  will  best 
and  most  readily  illustrate  the  matters  of  this  paper : — Robinia,  or 
False  Acacia,  Peach,  Eucalyptus^  Xanthium  or  Bathurst  Burr, 
Ceanothus^  Loquats,  Walnut,  Schinus  or  Pepper-Tree,  Jasmine, 
Honeysuckle,  Morton  Bay  Fig.  The  deciduous  stipule  (?)  or 
bract  overtopping  the  early  form  of  the  leaves  exhibits  the  latex 
vessels  very  beautifully  coloured  by  the  reagent,  as  also  the  petiole 
and  cells  of  the  leaf  proper. 

I  prepare  the  Ammonium  Molybdate  solution  by  saturating 
the  Molybdic  Acid  with  Liquor  Ammonise,  and  allowing  any 
free  Ammonia  to  evaporate.  The  solution  can  be  diluted  freely. 
In  some  cases,  the  slightest  portion  of  it  on  a  slide,  or  on  the 
finger,  reacts  before  one  is  aware  of  it,  as  may  happen  when  many 
specimens  are  examined  at  one  sitting. 

Table  of  Genera  Examined, 
acotyledons. 


Filices. 
o  Pteris  umbrosa,  } 
o  Adiantum  cethiopium. 


X   Polypodium  Billardieri. 

X   Lomaria,  sp. 

X  Todea  rivularis,  ? 


ON  PLANT  TISSUES. 


161 


Monocotyledons. 


o  Pampas  grass,  Arundo. 
X  Arum   Lily,  oethiop.    and 

maculata. 
o  Iris. 

o  Vallisneria  spiralis. 
o  Scilla. 
?  o    Allium  (Onion). 


Tradescantia  virginica. 


X  Hedychium,  sp. 

X  Canna  indica. 

o  Triglochin,  sp. 

o  Aponogeton  distachyon. 

X  Musa  (Banana). 

X  Zingiber  off. 

o  Maranta  vittata. 

—  Nymphceaceae,  genus. 


X   Araucaria. 


Gymnogens. 

I    X   Podocarpus. 

Dicotyledons. 


—  Salix  Babylonica. 

X    Humulus  lupulus  (Hop). 
?  O    Morus  nigra  (Mulberry). 
X  Ficus   macrophylla  (Morton 
Bay  Fig). 

—  Edible  Fig  (Carica). 

X   Juglans  regia  (Walnut). 
X    Croton  (ricinocarpus). 
o  Buxus  sempervirens  (Box). 
X  Ricinus  communis(castor  oil) 
o  Gourd. 

Aberia  caffon. 

Sterculia  diversifolia. 

Hibiscus,  sp. 

Phytolacca  decandra. 

Brassica  (Cauliflower). 

Reseda  odorata  (Mignon- 
ette). 

Polygala  myrtifolia  (Cape). 

Magnolia  tomentosa. 
Faba  (Bean), 
o  Cassia,  sp. 
?  o    Pisum  (Pea). 

Dolichos  lignosus. 
o  Cytisus,  Laburnum. 
X    Robinia  hispida. 
X    Acacia,  sp. 
?  o    Amygdalus   communis 

(Almond). 
X   Peach. 


X 
X 

o 
o 
o 

X 

o 

X 

?0 


X    Prunus  domestica. 
X    Photinia  serrulata. 
X    Hawthorn. 
X    Eriobotrya   Japonica 

(Loquat) 
X    Rosa  Banksia. 
X    Spiraea,  sp. 

—  Ulmus  (Elm). 

X    Ceanothus  Africanus. 

X    Carissa  ovata. 

o   Hoya  carnosa. 

o  Imperialis. 

o  Vinca  major  (Periwinkle). 

—  Erythrasa,  sp. 
Ligustrum  (Privet). 

X    Solanum  (jasminoides). 
X    Nicotiana  (glauca). 
o  Physalis  (Cape  Gooseberry). 
X    Cestrum. 

—  Datura  (section  of). 

X    Habrothamnus  fasciculatus. 

—  Ipomoea  purpurea. 

X    Corynocarpus  lavigatus  (N. 

Zealand). 
X   Jasminum,  sp. 
o   Myoporum  deserti. 

—  Tecoma  Australis. 

—  Acanthus  mollis. 

X    Digitalis   purpurea   (Fox- 
glove). 


162    ACTION  OF  AMMONIUM  MOLYBDATE,  ETC.,  ON  PLANTS. 


Dicotyledons — continued. 


X 


X 
X 
X 
X 


Veronica  Andersonii. 
o  Valeriana  off.  (garden). 
—  Daphne  variabilis. 

Xanthium  (Strumarium), 
Small  Burdock. 

Senecio,  sp. 

Myrtus  communis  (Myrtle). 

Mecylon  (tinctorum). 

Tristania  laurina,  ? 

Eucalyptus  globulus. 

Fabricia  laevigata. 
o  Pereskia  aculeata. 
X    Escallonia  macrantha,  ? 
o  Coprosma  lucida. 
X    Lonicera  xylostum  (Honey- 
suckle). 
X    Viburnum    tinus    (Laures- 

tina). 
o  Sambucas  nigra  (Elder). 
o  Aralia    papyrifera   (Rice 

Paper). 
o  Panax,  sp. 
—  Hedera  Helix  (Ivy). 


2  genera. 


X 


X 
O 


Umbelliferae, 
Clematis  (garden). 
Aquilegia  (Columbine). 
Poeonia  offic. 
Eschscholtzia  Californica. 
Papaver  Somniferum. 


Dielytra  spectabilis. 
Berberis. 

Vitis  vinifera  (Vine). 
Pittosporum  undulatum. 
Arbutus  unedo. 
Citrus  (Lemon). 


o 

X 

X 

X 

?0 

—  Melia  (Azadirachta). 
X   Schinus  molle  (Pepper  Tree) 
X   Ailanthus  glandulosa. 

?  Oxalis. 

X    Melianthus  major. 
X    Impatiens  (Balsam). 
X    Pelargonium,  sp. 

Rheum  (common  Rhubarb). 
Mirabilis  (Marvel  of  Peru). 
Bougainvillea. 
X    Daphne. 
X    Protea  mellifera. 

Do.     cynaroides. 
X    Telopea  speciosissima  (War- 

ratah). 
X    Hakea  elliptica. 
Do.     laurina. 

—  Stenocarpus,  salignus. 
X    Lomatia  ilicifolia. 

X    Buckinghamia  celsissima. 
X    Helicia. 

—  Grevillea  Hilliana. 

X    Leucadendron  argentum. 
X    Laurus. 


Specific  names  have  not  all  been  given,  as  most  of  the  speci- 
mens have  been  obtained  from  gardens,  and  uncertainty  might  be 
introduced. 

This  paper  was  read  before  the  Microscopical  Society,  Victo- 
ria, 31st  January,  1884. 


Journal    of  Microscopy,  Vol.  Z,P1.17. 


Jaw    of     Mefeatheriuin. 


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of 


SlotK. 


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c  ^  ^^ 

Port-iOTi    of    Tooth,    of     Megatherium 


[163] 

Zhc  flDicro0Cope  in  ipal^ontoIOQ?* 

By  Malcolm  Poignand,  M.D. 


Plate  17. 

THE  Palaeontologist,  working  at  the  scanty  and  imperfect 
remains  of  the  fauna  of  long  past  ages  found  scattered 
through  the  deposits  of  former  seas  and  rivers,  with  a  view 
of  picturing  life  as  it  existed  in  varied  conditions  through  all  the 
vast  periods  of  geological  time,  has  to  fill  up  many  a  wide  gap  in 
the  records  of  the  past  by  his  knowledge  of  the  present ;  and  in 
doing  this,  he  labours  under  a  double  difficulty,  namely,  that  the 
old  remains  are  often  only  mere  fragments  of  damaged  skeletons 
of  organisms  having  a  most  distant  resemblance  to  their  nearest 
modern  representatives,  and  also  that  all  is  not  by  any  means 
known  or  settled  about  the  new. 

In  dealing  with  a  problem  so  difficult,  no  fact,  however  minute, 
can  be  neglected  ;  for  it  may  be  a  link,  however  small,  in  a 
wonderful  and  complex  chain.  Thus,  every  detail  of  microscopic 
structure  becomes  of  real  importance  and  interest,  and  it  is  easy 
to  see  how  the  use  of  the  microscope,  especially  when  directed  to 
the  examination  of  transparent  sections  of  rocks  and  fossils  show- 
ing details  of  internal  structure,  has  thrown  a  flood  of  light  on 
what  was  dark  and  obscure  before. 

Besides  the  many  fossils,  which  from  their  minute  size  could 
not  otherwise  be  known  at  all,  whole  series  of  rocks  have  been 
found  to  be  mainly  composed  of  organic  remains  and  debris. 

Frequently,  the  fossil  under  examination  may  prove  on  section 
only  a  more  or  less  perfect  cast  with  every  detail  of  internal 
structure  gone,  and  the  cavity  occupied  by  a  crystalline  or  an 
amorphous  mineral  mass,  so  that  even  the  hard  shell  structure  has 
vanished,  and  the  plant  tissue  become  a  mere  film  of  carbon  ;  all 
degrees  exist  between  this  total  loss,  and  those  fossils  in  which 
silica,  or  calcite,  has  preserved  the  most  delicate  structural  details 
without  distortion  or  disarrangement.  At  times  scarcely  a  change 
appears  to  have  taken  place,  for  the  brown  chitin  of  Scottish  car- 
boniferous scorpions  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  that  of  recent 


164  THE  MICROSCOPE 

species,  and  probably  as  little  change  has  taken  place  in  the  dermo- 
skeletons  of  the  insects  mummified  in  fossil  resin,  considering  the 
almost  perfect  condition  of  insects  found  in  Amber. 

The  microscope  gives  a  fresh  value  to  a  fragment  of  tooth  or 
shell,  too  imperfect  to  be  determined  without  a  section,  which  will 
frequently  show  minute,  but  characteristic  structure  ;  and  yet  such 
a  fragment  may  serve  to  identify  the  nature  of  the  formation  in 
which  it  was  found ;  a  matter  not  only  of  importance  to  the 
Palaeontologist,  but  also  to  those  in  search  of  minerals  or  water, 
for  the  small  core  which  the  boring-machine  brings  up  must  often 
of  necessity  contain  but  scanty  evidence  of  the  nature  of  the 
strata  through  which  it  has  drilled,  and  yet,  on  an  accurate  know- 
ledge of  these  strata,  success  in  many  cases  depends. 

Time  and  the  use  of  the  microscope  must  decide  as  to  the 
probability  of  organic  remains  being  ever  discovered  in  the 
archaean  Limestones,  or  of  organic  structure  being  traced  in 
Laurentian  Graphite.  The  well-known  Eozoon  was  thought  for 
awhile  by  some  to  have  settled  the  question  in  part,  but  its  mineral 
nature  and  origin  is  now  generally  admitted. 

With  regard  to  the  Eozoon,  in  any  case,  the  storm  of  con- 
troversy which  raged  around  it  should  prove  useful  as  a  warning. 
How  difficult  even  skilled  observers  find  it  at  times  to  distinguish 
in  mixed  and  infiltrated  minerals,  what  is  due  to  strictly  mineral 
changes  alone,  and  what  to  their  modification,  by  the  presence  of 
organic  remains.  Many  fossils,  even  when  their  internal  structure 
seems  best  preserved,  are  only,  either  a  complicated  series  of  minute 
casts,  as  many  fossil  sponges,  or  exist  simply  as  stains  in  the  silica, 
which  has,  atom  by  atom,  replaced  those  which  once  composed  the 
organism,  leaving  only  some  of  the  molecules  of  carbon,  iron,  or 
lime  with  which  it  has  entered  into  combination,  without  dis- 
arrangement of  their  original  distribution,  so  that  they  thus 
remain  to  map  out,  in  a  sort  of  solid  photograph,  in  permanent 
type,  many  most  beautiful  and  minute  details  of  structure.  These 
ghosts  of  former  structure  remain,  though  not  so  easily  traced, 
even  when  the  silica  itself  has  in  the  course  of  time  undergone  a 
molecular  change,  having  passed  from  the  colloid  to  the  crystalline 
state,  for  crystals  are  formed  without  regard  to  the  presence  or 
absence  of  organic  impurities  in  the  matrix,  and  the  pattern  of  the 
structural  remains  becomes  obscured  by  them. 


IN  PALEONTOLOGY.  165 

Having  briefly  sketched  the  use  of  the  microscope  in  Palae- 
ontology generally,  a  few  instances  of  its  innumerable  uses  may  be 
noticed  more  in  detail.  Commencing  with  Bones.  These,  if  any 
articular  surface  is  preserved,  can  generally  be  determined  with  a 
moderate  amount  of  ease  and  accuracy;  but  if  occurring  water- 
worn  and  rolled,  gnawed  at  the  articular  ends,  or  in  small  fragments, 
microscopic  sections  may  be  of  value,  as  by  means  of  a  careful 
examination  and  measurement  of  the  average  size  of  the  long  and 
short  diameters  of  the  lacunae,  and  consideration  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  Haversian  canals,  and  of  the  canaliculi  of  the  lacunae, 
combined  with  other  details  less  microscopic,  a  bone  may  be 
classed.  And  as  instances.  It  is  well  known  how  Dr.  Falconer 
was  thus  aided  in  determining  one  of  the  toe-bones  of  his 
gigantic  Indian  tortoise.  Again,  the  first  large  Pterodactyle  bone 
found  in  the  chalk  was  the  subject  of  much  discussion  on  account 
of  its  size,  until  a  comparison  of  microscopic  sections  settled 
the  question,  and  future  discoveries  not  only  confirmed  this,  but 
removed  all  doubts  that  its  size  had  raised. 

Taking  as  our  next  example.  Teeth.  These  being  always  most 
intimately  related  to  the  food  and  habits  of  the  animal,  become  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  the  palaeontologist  in  the  determination 
of  the  nature  and  affinities  of  extinct  species,  of  whose  organisa- 
tion, from  the  durability  of  their  tissues,  they  are  often  the  sole 
remains  discoverable  in  the  deposits  of  former  times.  From  the 
external  examination  of  worn  fragments  of  teeth,  little  indeed 
could  be  said  about  their  former  owners ;  but  a  magnified  section 
may  reveal  the  most  characteristic  structure,  such  as  the  compli- 
cated infoldings  of  cement  through  the  waving  lobes  of  dentine  in 
the  teeth  of  the  Labyrinthodonts,  a  group  in  which  size  is  no 
guide,  as  they  vary  from  a  few  inches  in  some  species,  even  when 
adult  and  perfect,  to  others  which  attain  the  huge  bulk  of  the 
Mastodonsaurus. 

Amongst  the  teeth  of  extinct  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  and 
fishes,  the  microscope  demonstrates  innumerable  variations  and 
modifications  in  the  substance  and  use  of  dentine,  enamel,  and 
cement,  the  three  components  of  a  typical  tooth,  and  the  polari- 
scope  at  times  aids  in  showing  the  structure.  Moreover,  the  teeth 
of  many  extinct  genera  display  a  structure,  mode  of  growth,  and 

N 


166 


THE  MICROSCOPE 


renovation  exactly  the   same   as  their    modern    representatives, 
though  they  may  widely  differ  in  many  other  respects. 

Taking  as  an  example  the  huge,  extinct  Megatherium  and  the 
modern  diminutive  representative,  the  sloth  (see  PI.  17,  Figs,  i,  2). 
The  teeth  of  the  modern  two-toed  sloth  differ,  in  presenting  a 
greater  inequality  of  size  than  those  of  the  Megatherium,  but 
almost  all  the  other  dental  characters  are  the  same.  The  teeth  of 
the  Megatherium  may  be  described  (see  Fig.  3)  as  a  central  axis 
of  vaso-dentine,  surrounded  by  a  thin  layer  of  hard,  or  unvascular 
dentine,  which  is  coated  by  cement.  The  vaso-dentine  is  tra- 
versed throughout  by  medullary  canals,  measuring  i — 1,500th  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  continued  from  the  pulp  cavity,  and  anasto- 
mosing in  pairs  by  a  loop,  the  convexity  of  which  is  turned  to- 
wards the  origin  of  the  tubes  of  the  hard  dentine.  The  cement  is 
characterised  by  the  size,  number,  and  regularity  of  the  vascular 
canals  which  traverse  it,  running  parallel  to  each  other,  and  anas- 
tomose in  loops,  the  convexity  of  which  is  directed  towards  the 
hard  dentine.  All  the  constituents  of  the  blood  freely  circulated 
through  the  vascular  dentine  and  the  cement,  and  the  vessels  of 
each  substance,  intercommunicated  by  a  few  canals,  continued 
across  the  hard  or  unvascular  dentine. 

The  minuter  tubes,  which  pervade  every  part  of  the  tooth, 
characterising,  by  their  difference  of  length  and  course  the  three 
constituent  substances,  form  one  continuous  and  freely  intercom- 
municating system  of  strengthening  and  reparative  vessels,  by 
which  the  plasma  of  the  blood  was  distributed  throughout  the 
entire  tooth,  for  its  nutrition  and  maintenance  in  a  healthy  state. 
The  oblique  direction  of  the  vessels  of  the  vaso-dentine  has  a  use, 
probably,  in  thus  maintaining  the  nutrition  of  the  hard  dentine  at 
the  tip  of  the  tooth,  although  the  vaso-dentine  at  its  level  has  been 
worn  away.*" 

Scales  and  carapaces  of  many  reptiles  are  often  suflficiently 
well  preserved  to  show  their  structure,  and  the  curious  bodies 
found  in  the  coal  measures,  and  supposed  to  be  modified  ossicles 
of  the  ventral  armour  of  some  genus  of  Labyrinthodonts,  await  a 
microscopic  examination,  which  will  probably  help  in  determining 
their  origin.     Scales  of  many  fishes  require  magnifying  and  careful 

*  Owen's  Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrates,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  274-5. 


IN  PALEONTOLOGY.  167 

use  of  oblique  illumination,  to  show  their  fine  markings.  Cop- 
rolites  in  section  reveal  with  certainty  details  in  the  menu  of 
ancient  feasts,  and  in  sections  of  worm-eaten  coniferous  wood 
coprolites  of  the  smallest  size  have  been  found. 

Dr.  Carpenter  has  investigated  a  great  number  of  the  shells  of 
Brachiopoda,  and  made  out,  by  careful  microscopical  examination 
of  transparent  sections,  a  number  of  interesting  and  valuable 
details  relating  to  their  structure,  the  arrangement  and  markings  of 
their  prisms  which  form  the  shells ;  and  the  presence  or  absence, 
in  the  various  groups,  of  the  curious  canals  which  penetrate  the 
whole  thickness  of  the  shell.  These  canals  (so  far  as  yet  known) 
exist  in  all  true  TerebratididcB,  and  are  equally  wanting  in  all  true 
RhyiichoiiellidcB^  but  in  other  groups  they  exist  in  some  species 
only,  and  not  in  others. 

Many  of  the  shells  of  the  Brachiopoda — e.g.^  Porambonites  reti- 
culata— have  punctations,  but  no  canals,  though  on  external  exa- 
mination the  decided  and  regular  pitting  of  the  surface  of  this 
shell  closely  resembles  the  large  punctations  caused  by  the  open- 
ings of  the  canals  in  some  of  the  Terebratididce  and  Spiriferidce. 

Dr.  Carpenter  has  also  shown  how  the  shells  of  brachiopods 
differ  from  ordinary  bivalves  in  their  whole  shell-structure,  corres- 
ponding to  the  outer  layer  only  of  Lamellibra?ichiata^  being,  in 
fact,  calcified  epidermis,  like  the  prismatic  external  layer  of  Pinna 
or  AviciUa;  and  so  characteristic  is  their  structure,  that  even 
minute  fragments  may  be  referred  with  certainty  to  this  group, 
provided  metamorphic  action  has  not  altered  their  minute  struc- 
ture, as  only  too  frequently  occurs.  Many  shells  are  of  course  so 
minute  that  they  have  to  be  magnified  for  their  forms  to  be  exa- 
mined ;  but  many  small  shells  have  very  fine  markings,  or  spines, 
and  even  in  a  few  cases  minute  impressions  from  the  former  soft 
parts  of  the  mollusc,  whilst  some  comparatively  large  shells  have 
their  ornamentation  arranged  in  a  minute  pattern. 

Leaving  out  entirely  many  classes  whose  investigation  has 
received  aid  from  the  microscope,  Corals  may  be  noticed  as 
instances  in  which  sections  have  done  so  much,  and  the  beautiful 
arrangement  of  septa  and  tubulce  demonstrated,  and  mural  pores 
shown,  and  other  details  of  the  calices  made  out. 

Sponges,  again,  have  of  late  been  the  subject  of  much  micro- 


168  THE  MICROSCOPE 

scopic  study.  Dr.  Bowerbank  said  of  recent  English  sponges 
that  after  fifty  years'  experience  of  them,  he  frequently  found  that 
a  guess  at  the  species  by  external  examination,  of  even  the  com- 
monest kinds,  was  frequently  wrong ;  but  that  a  section  at  right 
angles  to  the  surface  under  the  microscope  settled  the  question 
with  ease  and  certainty.  Different  genera  of  sponges  may  assume 
the  same  form,  and  diverse  forms  may  belong  to  the  same  genus 
or  even  species.  How  much  more,  then,  must  microscopic  sec- 
tions be  required,  in  dealing  with  the  damaged  and  altered 
remains  of  fossil  sponges  ! 

Mr.  Sollas  describes  some  of  the  changes  which  fossilisation 
causes  at  times  in  Hexactinellid  sponges  :  how  crystalline,  trans- 
parent calcite  fills  up  the  meshes  of  the  network,  and  occupies  the 
hexradiate  canals  of  the  siliceous  fibre,  and  encloses  the  fibre,  in  a 
few  cases,  almost  as  homogeneous  and  purely  siliceous  as  when  it 
existed  in  the  living  state ;  but  more  generally,  specimens  shew  a 
further  change.  The  siliceous  fibre  becomes  granular,  absorption 
takes  place  mainly  from  within  outwards  in  each  fibre,  and  calcite 
is  concurrently  deposited.  But  even  in  this  extreme  mineralogi- 
cal  change,  the  original  structure  is  not  obliterated.  The  calcite 
which  fills  the  internal  canal  and  the  interspaces  of  the  meshes  is 
transparent  and  usually  colourless,  or  with  faint  yellowish  tinge ; 
while  that  which  replaces  the  siliceous  fibre  is,  by  reflected  light, 
of  a  milky-blue  colour,  and  by  transmitted  light,  brownish,  less 
transparent,  and  granular,  with  dark  spots.  And  thus,  while  the 
fundamental  spicule  has  become  absorbed  and  its  hollow  cast 
filled  with  crystalline  calcite,  and  the  same  material  has  replaced 
the  siliceous  fibre,  and  the  sarcode  between  the  meshes ;  while,  in 
fact,  the  whole  of  the  metamorphosed  net  consists  of  one  mate- 
rial, carbonate  of  lime,  the  structure  is  left  as  definitely  recorded 
as  in  a  sponge,  with  its  natural  composition  only  just  dead. 

Other  and  further  changes  at  times  take  place,  and  when  the 
sponge  is  partly  fossilised  by  calcite  externally  and  sifica  internally, 
the  central  canal  is  often  once  more  absorbed,  and  again,  as  in  its 
primary  state,  filled  with  silica.  This  may  be  changed,  silica  again 
taking  possession  of  the  form  of  the  fibre,  and  minute  granules  of 
iron  pyrites  taking  up  the  form  of  the  central  canal.  The  remains 
of  the  first-known  sponge,  the  Cambrian  Protospongia^  was  pro- 


IN  PALEONTOLOGY.  169 

bably  originally  siliceous,  but  is  now  iron  pyrites.  Owing,  appa- 
rently, to  some  difference  in  the  refractive  index  of  colloidal 
and  crystalline  silica ;  fossil  siliceous  fibres  and  spicules, 
mount  much  better  in  Glycerine  jelly  than  in  Canada  balsam. 
Recent  spicules,  on  the  other  hand,  are  invisible  in  Glycerine 
jelly,  but  the  fibre  is  more  than  usually  well  defined.  Recent  cal- 
careous spicules  polarise  well,  but  siliceous  spicules  do  not. 

Foraminifera  and  Polycystina  and  many  other  orders  are  almost 
entirely  microscopic,  and  are  too  well  known  to  need  any  notice, 
however  brief.  Fossil  botany,  also,  is  an  extensive  subject,  and 
one  in  which  the  knowledge  of  microscopic  structure  is  all-import- 
ant, and  roots  no  longer  do  duty  for  branches,  and  rootlets  for 
leaves,  as  they  did  formerly,  when  external  appearance  was  taken 
as  the  main,  if  not  the  only  guide. 

In  conclusion,  I  believe  that  you  will  find  that  the  use  of  the 
microscope  in  Palaeontology  greatly  aids  in  drawing  these  conclu- 
sions ;  that  though  time  and  external  appearances  may  widely  sepa- 
rate various  beings,  yet  that  they  all  bear  definite  relations  to  each 
other,  and  follow  the  same  laws ;  that  the  life-history  of  the  indi- 
vidual, from  its  earliest  stage  to  adult  perfection,  runs  parallel  with 
the  life-history  of  the  race,  and  that  as  the  pedigree  of  many 
existing  beings  can  be  roughly  traced  in  the  annals  of  the  past, 
what  is  true  of  a  part  will  ultimately  be  found  to  be  true  of  the 
whole,  so  that  the  old  and  the  new  are  not  really  separate,  but 
form  a  portion  of  a  wondrous  and  complex  whole,  which,  although 
for  ever  slowly  changing,  seems  for  ever  to  lead  to  greater  com- 
plexity and  beauty. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XVII. 


Fig.  1.— Section  of  upper  jaw  and  teeth  of  the  Megatherium,  one-third 
natural  size  (after  Owen).  The  teeth  are  five  in  number 
on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  as  drawn,  and  four  on  each 
side  of  the  lower  jaw.  p.,  the  pulp-cavity,  which  is  unusually 
extensive,  and  from  the  apex  of  which  a  fissure  is  continued 
to  the  middle  depression  of  the  grinding  surface  of  the  tooth. 
t. ,  the  vaso-dentine,  the  central  axis  of  which  is  surrounded 
by  a  thin  layer  of  hard  or  unvascular  dentine,  d. ,  and  this  is 
coated  by  the  cement,  c. ,  which  is  of  great  thickness  on  the 
anterior  and  posterior  surfaces,  but  thin  where  it  covers  the 
outer  and  inner  sides  of  the  tooth. 


170  ■  DIAMONDS  AND 

Fig.  2. — Teeth  of  tlie  two-toed  sloth,  Cholcejms  didadylus;  the  first  of 
the  upper  and  lower  series,  from  their  length  and  peculiar 
form,  are  called  "canine." 

,,    3. — Magnified  section  of  molar  tooth  of  the  Megatherium  : — v., 
vaso-dentine  ;  t. ,  dentine  ;  c. ,  cement. 


2)iamon&6  anb  tbeir  Ibietor^* 

By  James  A.  Forster. 


SECOND     PART. 


WE  have  now  to  consider  the  occurrence  and  geological  dis. 
tribution   of  the    Diamond,    more   especially   in   South 
Africa,  where  for  the  first  time  in  its  history  the  Diamond 
has  been  found  in  its  parent  rock. 

The  Diamonds  known  to  the  ancients  undoubtedly  came  from 
India,  perhaps  from  the  fabled  mines  of  Golconda.     These  mines 
were  really  not  situated  at  Golconda,  but  some  distance  from  that 
place,  which  was  merely  the  fort  to  which  the  produce  of  the 
mines  was  brought.     In  the   i6th  century.  Diamonds  were  ener- 
getically sought  for  in  India.     Of  the  actual  mines  there  we  know 
but  little ;  the  Portuguese  author,  Garcias  ab  Herta,  writing  in 
1565,  gives  some  description  of  them,  but  his  work  is  not  of  much 
scientific  value,  beyond  establishing  the  fact  that  the  Diamonds 
were  washed  from  a  pebbly  gravel.     Tavernier,  the  French  tra- 
veller, a  century  later,  describes  the  Indian  Diamond-fields,  many 
of  which,  he  informs  us,  w^re  then  closed,  and  confirms  the  state- 
ment that  the  Diamonds  were  either  found  in  river-beds  or  washed 
from  alluvial  gravel.     Recently,  I  gave  a  geological  friend  of  mine 
who  happened  to  be  in  India  a  commission  to  survey  the  old  Dia- 
mond district  in  the  Madras  Presidency,  my  firm  then  holding  the 
concession  for  working  it.    He  made  the  survey  very  carefully,  and 
reported  that  the  district  had  evidently  been  thoroughly  worked 
out.     The  specimens  of  the  gravels  he  sent  me  are  very  similar  to 
those  from  Brazil.     At  present,  very   few  Diamonds   are  found 
in   India,   and  scarcely  any   rough  from  there  finds  its  way  to 
Europe.     On  the   contrary,  large   quantities   of  rough   and   cut 
Cape  Diamonds  are  sent  to  India  by  the  London  merchants. 


THEIR  HISTORY.  171 

Borneo  produces  a  few  Diamonds,  but  of  the  mines  there  we  know 
nothing  beyond  that  the  district  is  said  to  be  fearfully  unhealthy, 
and  that  Europeans  cannot  live  there.  According  to  tradition, 
Diamonds  are  said  to  have  been  found  in  Arabia,  but  this  I 
beUeve  to  be  entirely  a  myth.  Mineralogical  treatises  also  state 
that  Diamonds  have  been  found  in  the  Ural  Mountains  ;  how- 
ever, I  can  find  no  satisfactory  records  of  such  finds,  and  it  is 
certain  none  come  from  there  now,  and  the  asserted  discoveries  in 
California,  Georgia,  and  Mexico  are  without  foundation,  and,  like 
the  reported  finds  of  Diamonds  in  Arizona,  have,  no  doubt, 
resulted  from  "  salting  "  operations  by  speculators  who  wished  to 
sell  a  Diamond-mine. 

Australia  has  produced  Diamonds  of  small  size,  washed  from 
the  banks  of  rivers,  but  only  in  such  small  quantities  that  they 
have  not  paid  for  the  seeking,  although  it  would  seem  probable, 
judging  from  our  experience  at  the  Cape,  that  districts  rich  in 
Diamonds  may  be  discovered  in  New  South  Wales. 

The  Brazilian  mines  were  first  discovered  in  1727,  in  Sierro  de 
Frio,  and  produced  immense  quantities  of  Diamonds,  so  as  to 
cause  great  consternation  amongst  the  possessors  of  old  Diamonds, 
and  a  considerable  fall  in  values.  Later  on,  other  diamondiferous 
districts  were  found,  and  in  1S43  the  rich  fields  of  Bahia  were 
discovered.  At  this  time,  the  total  annual  finds  amounted  to  the 
astonishing  quantity  of  600,000  carats,  worth  over  a  million  ster- 
ling.^ This  production,  however,  was  not  maintained  for  long,  and 
by  185 1  had  fallen  to  one-fourth,  and  was  diminishing  year  by 
year.  There  are  three  distinct  diamond-producing  districts  in 
Brazil,  widely  separated  from  each  other,  and  evidently  each 
deriving  its  Diamonds  from  a  different  source.  The  first  is  the 
district  of  Diamantina,  in  the  Minas  Geraes ;  the  second  some 
seven  days'  journey  from  it,  in  the  district  known  as  Bagagem,  and 
which  produces  the  finest  quality  ;  and,  third,  the  district  of  Bahia, 
near  the  sea-coast.  In  the  two  first  of  these  districts,  the  Dia- 
monds are  found  by  washing  an  alluvial  deposit,  a  peculiarly 
reddish  gravel,  known  locally  under  the  name  of  "  Cascalhao," 
which  occurs  underneath   the  present  bed  of  the  river,  and  is 

*  The  South  African  fields  have  proved  much  richer,  the  total  finds  of  the 
four  Mines — Kimberley,  Bultfontein,  Dutoitspan,  and  De  Beer's — being 
estimated  for  the  year  1883  at  2,600,000  carats,  of  the  value  of  three  millions 
sterling. 


172  DIAMONDS  AND 

indeed  the  ancient  bed  of  the  river.  To  get  at  this,  the  stream  is 
dammed  off  in  the  dry  season,  and  shafts,  from  6  to  30  ft.,  sunk 
to  this  diamond-bearing  layer,  and  the  gravel  is  brought  to  the 
surface  in  baskets  by  negroes,  and  stored  by  the  washing-sheds  to 
be  examined  during  the  rainy  season.  The  season  during  which 
the  ground  can  be  excavated  is  very  short ;  I  believe,  not  above 
ten  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  rains  commence  suddenly 
in  such  deluges  as  to  destroy  all  works,  carrying  away  the  em- 
bankments and  filling  up  all  the  holes,  and  the  following  season 
the  miners  have  to  begin  again  anew,  and  as  all  trace  of  former 
workings  are  obliterated,  it  not  unfrequently  occurs  that  a  miner 
sinks  his  shafts  on  ground  already  worked,  and  thus  has  the 
season's  work  wasted.  In  this  way,  and  owing  to  the  great  diffi- 
culties to  be  overcome,  diamond-mining  in  the  Sierras  has  become 
a  most  precarious  and  dangerous  operation.  In  the  third  district, 
that  of  Bahia,  the  Diamonds  are  also  found  in  an  alluvial  gravel, 
but  instead  of  occurring  in  the  ancient  beds  of  rivers,  this  gravel 
is  spread  in  a  very  thin  Stratum  over  the  face  of  the  country,  close  to, 
or  on  the  surface,  and  requires  little  more  than  to  be  raked  up  and 
washed.  In  a  locality  discovered  about  a  year  since,  called  Cana- 
viras,  near  Bahia,  and  now  being  worked  with  success,  the  gravel 
lies  quite  on  the  surface,  and  forms  a  stratum  not  six  inches  thick, 
and  although  the  area  over  which  it  extends  is  very  considerable, 
it  is  estimated  it  will  be  worked  out  in  two  years.  In  1841,  a 
paper  was  read  before  the  Academy  at  Brussels  by  M.  P.  Chasseau, 
in  which  he  claimed  that  in  one  locality  the  Sierro  di  San  Antonio 
di  Grammagoa,  the  Diamond  had  been  found  in  its  matrix  rock. 
He  described  it  as  "  gres  psammite,"  and  it  is,  I  believe,  the  same 
as  the  Itacolimite  of  other  authors,  which  has  been  frequently 
described  as  a  kind  of  sandy  freestone.  It  is,  however,  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  this  is  the  rock  in  which  the  Diamond  is  formed. 
It  is  only  a  somewhat  compact  conglomerate,  formed  of  the  same 
elements  as  the  cascalhao. 

I  will  now  turn  to  the  South-African  Diamond-fields,  the  rich- 
est and  most  interesting  in  the  world.  The  existence  of  Diamonds 
at  South  Africa  had  been  asserted  many  years  ago,  and  there  is  a 
mission-map,  dated  as  far  back  as  1750,  on  which  is  written,  across 
the  district  of  West  Griqualand,   "  Here  be  Diamonds,"  and  it  is 


THEIR  HISTORY.  173 

certain  that  the  bushmen  and  Corannas  have  used  Diamonds  for 
boring  stones  from  time  immemorial,  and  on  several  occasions  the 
old  Dutch  Boers  of  Capetown  were  excited  about  the  matter,  but 
the  rumours  died  away,  and  were  forgotten  till  1867,  when  a  tra- 
velling trader  brought  some  Diamonds  to  Cape  Town,  which  he 
had  obtained  from  a  farmer  on  the  Orange  River.  Sir  P.  E. 
Wodehouse  bought  them,  and  startled  the  world  by  sending  them 
to  the  Paris  International  Exhibition.  Soon  the  Colony  was  all 
agog,  and  by  1870  5,000  people  were  digging  on  the  banks  of  the 
Orange  and  Vaal  Rivers,  where  the  Diamonds  are  found  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  in  India  and  Brazil.  These  were,  however, 
only  what  are  known  as  the  "  river  diggings,"  and  were  soon  to  be 
eclipsed  by  the  so-called  "  dry  diggings  "  of  Dutoitspan,  Bultfon- 
tein,  Old  de  Beers,  and  lastly,  but  more  important  than  all  the  rest 
combined,  the  mine  of  Colesburg  Kopje,  called  at  first  New  Rush, 
and  now  famous  before  the  world  as  the  Kimberley  Mine.  Here, 
at  last,  was  the  Diamond  traced  to  its  parent  rock,  to  its  matrix,  to 
the  place  of  its  crystallisation.  Before  describing  the  mine,  let  me 
draw  your  attention  to  the  general  characteristics  of  the  country, 
although  it  is  at  present  impossible  to  give  a  very  exact  geological 
account  of  it,  as  no  two  geologists  who  have  been  on  the  fields 
seem  to  agree  in  their  description  of  the  formation.  In  fact, 
there  are  not  yet  data  sufiicient  to  draw  up  a  good  geological  map 
of  the  district.  Kimberley  is  situated  some  600  miles  north-east 
of  Cape  Town  and  about  24  miles  south  of  the  Vaal  River.  The 
country,  which  is  barren  and  sterile  to  a  fearful  degree,  seems  to 
consist  to  a  considerable  extent  of  a  loose  conglomerate,  varying 
considerably  in  constitution,  resting  upon  the  Karoo  shales  of 
unknown  thickness,  and  traversed  in  all  directions  by  dykes  of 
greenstone  and  other  volcanic  rocks.  In  places  are  large,  super- 
ficial deposits  of  tufa,  pebbles,  and  sand.  Peculiar  and 
marked  features  of  the  country  are  the  salt-pans  (shallow  depres- 
sions of  the  land,  containing  saline  deposits)  and  the  low,  trun- 
cated hills,  known  as  Kopjes.  These  Kopjes  rise  40  to  80  ft. 
from  the  plain,  have  flat  tops,  and  seem  to  be  protruding  masses 
of  a  rock  that  has  been  described  as  basaltic,  and  are  frequently 
more  or  less  covered  with  a  loose,  fine,  red  sand.  These  remark- 
able hills  are  now  known  to  be  ancient  volcanoes,  and  on  such  a 


174  DIAlVrONDS  AND  THEIR  HISTORY. 

hill  was  10  years  ago  Kimberley  Mine.  The  operations  there, 
covering  about  9  acres,  have  now  not  only  levelled  the  hill,  but 
have  excavated  the  earth  to  the  depth  of  about  800  feet,  laying 
bare  the  sides  of  the  crater.  As  the  sand  got  cleared  away,  it  was 
found  that  the  "  mine  "  is  surrounded  by  hard,  calcined  shales, 
called  by  the  miners  "  the  reef."  This  reef  contains  no  Diamonds, 
nor  does  the  stratum  outside  it,  the  diamondiferous  earth  being 
entirely  inside — that  is,  surrounded  by  the  reef.  At  first,  the 
reef  sloped  inwards,  thus  decreasing  the  area  of  the  mine,  and 
forming  a  kind  of  cup,  but  at  a  certain  depth  it  becomes  vertical. 
The  first  layer  was  the  loose,  red  sand,  containing  but  few  Dia- 
monds ;  then  came  a  stratum  of  60  to  80  feet  of  yellow  ground, 
containing  many  Diamonds  ;  and  below  that  the  richest  stratum  of 
all,  known  as  the  blue  ground,  of  unknown  depth.  This  diamond- 
iferous ground  has  been  carefully  and  thoroughly  analysed,  and  is 
found  to  consist  of  decomposed  volcanic  material. 

The  mine,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  quarry,  is  worked  by 
negro  labour.  The  "  blue  ground  "  is  first  loosened  by  blasting, 
then  dug  out  with  pick  and  shovel,  and  hauled  to  the  surface  by 
means  of  aerial  trams,  worked  by  steam  power.  The  ground,  at 
first  very  hard,  is  then  spread  out,  exposed  to  the  sun  and  rain, 
and  in  about  three  or  four  months  is  in  a  condition  to  pulverise 
and  pass  through  the  washing-machine.  Space  prevents  me 
longer  dwelling  upon  this  mine,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of 
all  the  dry  diggings  of  South  Africa.  They  are  all,  both  pans  and 
Kopjes,  volcanic  craters.  This  is  proved  by  the  calcined  reef 
surrounding  them,  and  the  character  and  analysis  of  the  earth 
contained  inside  them ;  further,  that  the  country  has  been  sub- 
jected to  great  volcanic  disturbance,  is  shown  by  the  stratum  being 
seamed  in  all  directions  by  trap-dykes.  That  the  Diamonds  of 
the  Kimberley  mine  were  formed  in  the  earth  in  which  they  are 
now  found,  an  examination  of  the  output  of  the  mine  conclu- 
sively proves. 

The  Diamonds  from  these  mines  are  entirely  different  in 
appearance  from  those  found  in  the  gravels  of  Brazil,  or  India,  or 
the  "  River  Diggings,"  which  always  bear  marks  of  travel ;  while 
these  from  Kimberley,  to  the  minutest  chips,  show,  by  their  sharp 
edges  and  brilliant  polish,  that  they  have  crystallised  where  now 
found,  or  at  most  been  only  thrown  up  from  below. 


LARVAL   FORMS  OF  THE   CRUSTACEA.  175 

There  now  remains  the  question  of  their  origin,  and  from 
whence  came  the  material  from  which  they  crystallised.  My 
theory  is,  that  underneath  the  shale  will  be  found  a  deposit  of 
coal,  perhaps  under  the  mine,  certainly  in  its  near  neighbourhood, 
(a  rich  coal  stratum  is  now  being  worked,  which  crops  up  to  the 
surface  in  the  Transvaal,  about  loo  miles  distant  from  Kimberley,) 
and  that  subsequently  to  this  carboniferous  period  the  volcanoes 
were  in  a  state  of  activity,  during  which  the  carbonic-acid  gas, 
evolved  from  the  coal  in  process  of  formation,  found  an  outlet 
into  the  pipe  or  crater  of  the  volcano,  entering  it  like  a  blast. 
The  gas  would  thus  be  in  the  presence  of  the  natural  forces 
necessary  to  determine  its  crystalHsation,  viz.,  pressure  and  heat. 
The  changes  of  temperature  that  the  molten  rock  in  the  crater 
would  be  subjected  to  accounts  for  the  shattered  condition  the 
Diamonds  frequently  present ;  also  for  the  irregularities  of  their 
cr}^stallisation.  Finally,  the  answer  I  would  give  to  the  question 
of  "What  is  the  Diamond?"  is  that  it  is  crystallised  sunshine. 
The  solar  rays  absorbed  by  the  vegetation  of  the  coal-measures 
now  shine  forth  from  these  beautiful  gems. 


®n  tbc  Stub^  of  the  Xarval  fovnw 
of  tbc  Cru0tacca^ 

By  Edward  Lovett,  Croydon. 


THE  early  stages  of  the  Crustacea  are  less  known  than  are 
those  of  any  other  order  of  animals  ;  for  the  insects  of  our 
Islands  have  been  so  thoroughly  worked,  that  even  the 
life -history  of  the  Micro-lepidoptera  have  received  elaborate 
description.  The  Mollusca,  too,  are  fairly  well  known  as  to  their 
reproduction,  and  so,  too,  are  the  fishes.  Yet  the  Zooea,  or 
larval  forms  of  many  of  our  British  Crustacea  are  apparently 
unknown,  and  those  even  of  less  rare  species  are  strangers  to  all 
but  those  naturalists  who  have  made  these  interesting  creatures 
their  study.     It  is  only  within  the  last  sixty  or  seventy  years  that 


176  THE  LARVAL  FORMS 

the  larval  forms  of  the  Crustacea  were  recognised  as  such ;  before 
that  time  they  were  classed  under  a  genus  called  Zooea^  hence  the 
term  then  given  is  still  applied  to  them  in  their  real  character. 

The  reason  of  this  obscurity  on  the  part  of  these  peculiar 
microscopic  atoms,  for  in  truth  many  of  them  are  little  more,  is 
not  far  to  seek.  Few  animals,  except  our  familiar  and  pugnacious 
friend  the  Shore  Crab,  Carci7ius  mccnas,  are  so  extremely  difficult 
to  keep  in  even  the  best-managed  aquarium,  as  Crabs,  Lobsters, 
Shrimps,  Prawns,  and  Sandhoppers.  And  if  these  animals  are  not 
favourable  for  the  purpose  of  observation,  under  ordinary 
conditions,  it  stands  to  reason,  that  when  laden  with  mature  ova, 
they  are  still  less  likely  to  live  under  artificial  circumstances ; 
far  more  unlikely  is  it  that  the  tender  and  fragile  Zooea  would  be 
able  to  undergo  this  natural  metamorphosis  whilst  subjected  to 
unnatural  confinement.  I  suppose  that  the  nearest  approach  to 
perfection  in  the  study  of  the  life-history  of  these  creatures  exists 
in  the  splendid  Marine  Zoological  Station  at  Naples,  and  British 
naturalists  will  hail  with  delight  the  day  when  something  of  the 
kind  can  be  established  in  some  favoured  locality  on  our  own 
shores. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  conditions  to  be  aimed  at  for  the 
successful  accomplishment  of  the  object  in  view  are  those 
corresponding  exactly  with  Nature,  but  unfortunately  even  the 
natural  conditions  under  which  pretty  well  half  of  the  British 
Crustacea  undergo  their  early  life  are  not  known.  Some  of  our 
Crustacea  are  entirely  shore  forms,  delighting  in  the  zone  where 
the  surf  breaks  with  the  greatest  fury ;  others  are  seldom  found 
except  under  large  stones,  and  in  rock  crevices  ;  others,  again, 
burrow  in  sand,  in  mud,  or  in  rock  detritus  (each  material  being 
characteristic  of  separate  and  distinct  species) ;  some  live  in 
estuaries,  others  in  ditches  of  brackish  water,  in  salt  marshes,  and 
some  swim  freely  in  deep  water.  As  therefore  the  parents  exist 
under  so  many  different  conditions,  it  is  probable  also  that  their 
Zooea  forms  enjoy  as  large  a  variety  of  attendant  circumstances, 
but  what  these  circumstances  are,  in  most  cases  remains  a 
mystery. 

There  are,  however,  a  few  species  which  may,  with  a  little 
care,  be  studied  in  confinement,  one  of  the  best  being  our  little 


OF  THE   CRUSTACEA.  177 

friend  already  mentioned,  viz. — the  common  Shore  Crab.  The 
hardy  constitution  of  this  species  is  no  doubt  the  cause  of  its  wide 
distribution.  Besides  a  range  of  considerable  dimensions  outside 
the  limits  of  our  own  seas,  it  occurs  on  almost  every  possible 
variety  of  coast  in  this  country.  It  swarms  in  harbours,  muddy 
estuaries,  or  busy  docks  ;  it  may  be  seen  scuttling  along  the  wet 
sand  at  any  sea-side  resort ;  it  assumes  tints  and  shades  of  delicate 
hue  amongst  the  rich  Zostera  pools  of  the  Channel  Islands,  and 
it  lives  and  attains  to  a  goodly  size  on  the  bleak,  cold  shores  of 
Shetland.  If  therefore  a  species  be  required  whose  Zooea  could 
stand  the  strain,  I  think  this  would  be  the  best  for  the  purpose. 

And  now  for  the  tanks  necessary  for  the  "  cultivation "  of 
Carcifius  mcenas.  In  Sa'e?ice  Gossip  for  January  last,  I  figured  and 
described  a  series  of  small  breeding  tanks,  fitted  with  reservoirs, 
so  constructed  that  when  one  reservoir  was  discharging  its 
contents  into  the  top  tank,  the  lower  tank,  having  received  the 
overflow,  again  discharged  it  into  the  other,  when,  by  reversing  the 
reservoirs,  by  a  simple  mechanical  arrangement,  the  operation 
was  repeated.  This,  with  occasional  attention,  would  cause  an 
almost  perpetual  flow  of  water,  and  in  addition  to  this,  a  certain 
quantity  of  the  reserve  sea- water  would  always  be  in  the  dark. 
The  advantage  of  such  a  series  of  tanks  as  these  for  hatching 
out  Zocea  of  Crustacea  is  that  the  water  does  not  become 
stagnant,  and  consequently  fatal  to  its  inmates.  Of  course 
the  ends  of  the  overflow  pipes  should  be  covered  with  the 
finest  wire  gauze,  and  sheets  of  glass  should  also  be  placed  on  the 
tanks  to  exclude  dust ;  the  bottom  of  each  should  be  covered 
with  well-washed,  coarse  sand,  and  the  water  itself  need  not  be 
more  than  from  two  to  six  inches  in  depth.  One  of  the  most 
important  items  to  be  remembered  is,  that  these  tanks  should  be 
placed  in  a  cool  north  aspect,  with  little  or  no   direct   sunlight. 

Having  obtained  a  female  crab,  with  dark-coloured  ova  (the 
dark  colour  of  the  ova  is  a  proof  of  their  being  near  maturity, 
immature  ova  being  yellow,  red,  or  very  pale  brown,  whereas  the 
mature  ova  become  nearly  black  as  the  eye  of  the  Zooea  begins  to 
form),  place  her  in  one  of  the  tanks,  and  supply  her  with  a  piece 
of  broken  flower-pot,  or  some  such  object,  under  which  she  can 
crawl,  for  some  Crustaceans  are  very  shy,  and  shelter  should  at  all 


178  HYDROZOA  AND  MEDUSAE. 

times  be  provided  for  them.  The  Zooea  will  leave  the  parent 
soon  after  emergence  from  the  egg,  and  if  carefully  looked  for 
may  be  seen  swimming  about,  but  they  are  mostly  tiny  little 
fellows.  It  will  now  be  possible  to  record  their  development,  by 
taking  a  few  every  two  or  three  days  and  examining  them  under 
the  microscope,  making  drawings  of  them  at  the  time,  or 
preserving  them  as  slides  for  future  work. 

I  will  conclude  by   referring  my   readers  to  the  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Microscopical  Society^  Vol.  III.,  Part  6,  for  December, 
1883,  p.  785,  where  they  will  find  a  paper  by  me  on  an  improved 
method   for  the  preparation   and   mounting  of  these  and  other 
delicate  marine  organisms. 


1bv^bro3oa  anb  flDcbue^^ 

By  J.  B.  Jeaffreson,  M.R.C.S.,  etc. 

Plate  18. 


SCARCELY  any  result  of  Microscopic  research  has  been  more 
interesting  and  unexpected  than  the  discovery  of  the  close 
connection  between  the  Hydroid  Zoophytes  and  the  Medusoid 
Acalephse,  or  Jelly-fishes.  So  utterly  different  are  they  in  size,  or- 
ganisation, and  mode  of  life  that  they  were  long  considered  as 
separate  and  distinct  creatures  ;  but  it  is  now  discovered  that  many 
of  the  Medusae  are  really  only  the  sexual  apparatus  of  certain 
members  of  the  Hydrozoa. 

The  Compound  Hydrozoa  consists  essentially  of  an  aggregation 
or  colony  of  partially  independent  polypites  or  zooids,  almost  iden- 
tical in  structure  with  the  familiar  pond  Hydra  ;  but,  instead  of 
leading  a  separate  existence  like  that  animal,  remaining  permanently 
connected  with  one  another  by  a  common  flesh  or  coenosarc. 
Each  group  or  colony  commences  its  existence  as  a  free-swimming, 
ciliated,  oblong  body,  called  "a  planula,"  very  closely  resembling 
an  infusorian,  which  soon  attaches  itself  by  one  extremity  to  some 
solid  object ;  and  at  the  opposite  end  developes  a  mouth,  sur- 
rounded by  a  row  of  tentacles.     The  mouth  opens  into  a  chamber, 


Journal   of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3, PI  18. 


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HYDROZOA  AND  MEDUS.E.  179 

which  occupies  the  whole  length  of  the  polypite,  and  at  its  lower 
extremity  is  continuous  with  the  tubular  cavity  which  is  excavated 
throughout  the  centre  of  the  coenosarc  ;  and  hence  the  nutritive 
particles  obtained  by  each  polypite  serve  for  the  support  of  the 
whole  colony. 

From  this  original  Hydraform  polype,  a  stalk  of  coenosarc 
grows  upwards,  and  on  this  stalk  new  polypites  are  developed ; 
thus  giving  rise  to  a  more  or  less  arborescent,  plant-like  colony. 
One  of  the  best  known  forms,  which  is  familiar  to  all  visitors  at 
the  seaside,  is  the  Sertularla,  or  sea-fir  (Fig.  2),  which,  by  those 
unacquainted  with  its  true  nature,  is  almost  always  set  down  as  a 
seaweed.  They  are  entirely  confined  to  the  sea,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Cordylophora,  which  inhabits  fresh  water  (Fig.  i). 

These  colonies  continue  to  increase  for  some  time  by  gemma- 
tion, but  the  polypites  thus  produced  can  only  remain  attached  to 
the  original  individual,  and  are  unable  to  start  new  colonies.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  necessary  that  a  special  form  of  polypite  should 
be  developed,  entirely  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  reproduction. 
These  reproductive  gemmae,  which  are  totally  different  from  the 
nutritive  zooides,  both  in  structure  and  function,  bud  forth  from 
the  base  of  the  tentacles.  In  the  simplest  form  they  appear  as 
mere  protuberances  from  the  external  wall  of  the  Hydrozoon 
(Fig.  i^),  forming  a  sort  of  sacculated  pouch,  attached  by  a  short 
stalk  to  the  parent  colony,  which  after  attaining  a  certain  size 
develop  ova  and  sperm-cells.  In  Sertularia  they  are  developed 
in  chitinous  receptacles,  known  as  "  gonotheca"  (Fig.  2),  and 
remain  permanently  attached  to  the  parent  colony.  In  the  Corynida 
and  Ca??ipa?mlarida,  the  reproductive  elements  are  developed  in 
distinct  buds  or  sacs,  which  are  external  processes  of  the  body- 
wall,  and  are  termed  "  gonophores  "  (Fig.  3^).  Each  gonophore 
develops  into  a  little  transparent,  glassy,  bell-shaped  disc,  attached 
by  its  base  to  the  parent  organism  :  from  its  roof,  like  the  clapper 
of  a  bell,  there  depends  a  peduncle  or  "  manubrium  "  (Fig.  3;//)  ; 
while  from  the  rim  hang  a  row  of  long  and  delicate  tentacles. 
In  the  manubrium  is  formed  a  mouth,  which  opens  into  the 
stomach,  from  which  four  tubes  radiate  to  the  margin  of  the  bell, 
where  they  communicate  with  each  other  by  a  single  circular 
canal,  which  surrounds  the   disc. 


180  HYDROZOA  AND  MEDUSAE. 

In  some  species,  as  Tiihularia  indivisa,  the  gonophores  thus 
constituted  remain  permanently  attached  to  the  parent  organism, 
but  in  other  cases  still  further  changes  ensue.  After  a  time  they 
are  detached  from  the  parent,  becoming  in  every  respect  indepen- 
dent beings,  and  are  absolutely  identical  with  the  organisms 
commonly  called  "jelly-fishes,"  and  technically  known  as  Medusce 
(Fig.  2>^).  The  essential  generative  elements — the  ova  and 
spermatozoa — are  developed  in  the  walls  of  the  radiating  tubes 
which  open  into  the  stomach  ;  and  these  eggs,  instead  of  pro- 
ducing young  jelly-fish,  give  origin  to  the  small  ciliated  infusorian- 
like  body  referred  to  previously,  which  after  a  time  settles  on 
some  solid  object  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  develops  into 
the  primary  polypite  of  a  new  colony,  which  again  goes  through 
the  extraordinary  cycle  we  have  been  considering. 

In  one  of  the  sub-classes  of  the  Hydrozoa — the  Lucernariida — 
a  further  variation  of  the  reproductive  process  takes  place.  Here 
the  free-swimming  ciliated  embryo  (Fig.  4a)  attaches  itself  to  some 
submarine  body,  forms  a  mouth  at  the  opposite  extremity,  around 
which  are  developed  a  row  of  tentacles  (Fig.  4<^),  and  is  now 
known  as  a  Hydra-tuba.  It  possesses  the  power  of  forming  by 
gemmation  large  colonies,  which  may  remain  in  this  condition  for 
years,  but  in  which  state  it  is  unable  to  produce  the  essential  organs 
of  reproduction.  After  a  time,  however,  the  body  becomes 
elongated,  and  exhibits  a  number  of  transverse  depressions  or 
grooves  (Fig.  ^c)^  which  go  on  getting  deeper  and  deeper  till  the 
whole  organism  assumes  the  aspect  of  a  pile  of  saucers  one  above 
the  other,  with  their  concave  surfaces  upwards.  At  this  stage  the 
organism  was  described  by  Sars  under  the  name  of  "  Strobila  " 
(Fig.  Afd).  The  edges  of  these  discs  become  divided  into  lobes, 
each  lobe  presenting  a  cleft  in  the  centre.  The  tentacles  now  dis- 
appear, and  a  fresh  circle  is  formed  at  the  base  of  the  Hydra-tube. 
At  last  the  saucer-like  segments  drop  off  one  by  one,  and  present 
themselves  in  the  form  of  independent,  free-swimming  Medusoids, 
under  the  name  of  Ephyrce  (Fig.  \f).  They  swim  about  freely,  eat 
voraciously,  and  increase  largely  in  size;  sometimes  becoming  abso- 
lutely gigantic — specimens  having  been  found  seven  feet  in  diam- 
eter, with  tentacles  more  than  fifty  feet  in  length.  As  they  advance 
towards  maturity  they  gradually  take  on  all  the  characteristics  of 


HYDROZOA  AND  MEDUSA.  181 

adult  jelly-fish  ;  part  of  the  umbrella-like  disc  projects  downwards 
in  the  form  of  a  proboscis  (Fig.  \h),  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a 
quadrangular  mouth,  which  opens  into  the  digestive  sac  ;  from 
which  arises  a  series  of  radiating  canals  which  extend  themselves 
over  the  disc.  The  intervals  between  the  segments  gradually  fill 
up,  so  that  the  divisions  are  obliterated,  and  from  the  borders  of 
the  disc  sprout  forth  tendril-like  filaments,  which  hang  down  around 
the  margin  ;  while  from  the  four  angles  of  the  mouth  prolonga- 
tions are  put  forth  which  develop  in  the  adult  into  four  large  ten- 
tacles. They  continue  to  live  until  the  generative  organs  make 
their  appearance  in  four  chambers,  arranged  round  the  stomach, 
when  they  produce  ova  and  sperm-cells  and  die.  The  fertilised 
egg,  however,  does  not  develop  into  the  large  organism  by  which 
it  was  produced,  but  into  the  little  sex-less  Hydra-tuba  from  which 
its  immediate  parent  was  originally  detached  ;  while  the  original 
polypoid  body  may  still  remain,  and  return  to  its  polype-like  con- 
dition, and  original  mode  of  increasing  by  gemmation,  forming  a 
new  colony,  and  in  time  becoming  the  progenitor  of  a  new  series 
of  reproductive  Medusae. 

We  have  here  a  striking  example  of  the  so-called  alternation  of 
generation,  the  phenomena  of  which  are  among  the  most  extra- 
ordinary with  which  we  are  acquainted  in  the  whole  animal  king- 
dom. The  minute,  fixed  Hydroid  polype,  in  many  respects 
resembling  a  plant,  not  more  than  half-an-inch  long,  giving  rise  to 
the  absolutely  gigantic  free-swimming  Medusae,  the  ova  of  which, 
instead  of  being  developed  into  the  likeness  of  its  parent,  revert 
again  to  the  original,  tiny,  immovable,  plant-like  organisms  from 
which  they  were  at  first  produced. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XVIII. 


Fig.  1. — Cordylopliora  lacustris,  showing  a  polypite  and  three  gono- 
plieres,  in  different  stages  of  growth,  the  largest  containing 
ova. 

,,    2.—Sertularia  pinnata,  showing  capsules. 

,,  3. — tSyncoryne  Sarzii,  with  medusiform  zooids  (a)  budding  from 
between  the  tentacles.  h.,  Reproductive  swimming-bell, 
detached  and  free-swimming,     m.,  Manubrium. 

O 


182  AN  EXA3IINATI0N  OF  THE 

Fig.  4.  — Development  of  one  of  the  Lucernarida : — a,  Ciliated  free- 
swimming  embryo  or  "planula."  h,  Hydra-tuha.  c,  Hydra- 
tuba  further  developed,  d,  Strobila  stage,  with  the  secondary 
circle  of  tentacles,  c,  Hydra-tuha,  in  which  the  fission  has 
proceeded  still  further,  and  a  large  number  of  the  segments 
have  been  detached  to  lead  an  independent  existence.  /, 
group  of  young  medusae  of  the  natural  size,  g,  Individual 
seen  from  above,  showing  the  bifid  lobes  of  the  margin,  and 
the  quadrilateral  mouth,  h,  Individual  viewed  sideways,  and 
showing  the  proboscis. 


Hn  £yamitiation  of  tbe  lEyternal  Hir 
of  Maebington* 

By  J.  H.  Kidder,  M.D.,  Surgeon  U.S.A.  Navy.* 


Plate    19. 


DR.  KIDDER  has  very  courteously  sent  us  a  copy  of  this 
report,  consisting  of  twenty-two  closely  printed  pages  and 
ten  Phototype  plates. 

The  first  portion  of  the  work  treats  of  the  Chemical  Analysis 
of  Air,  and  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  if  we  describe  the 
apparatus  employed,  which  is  that  devised  by  Dr.  Fox,  and  which 
brings  "  continually  fresh  quantities  of  air  into  intimate  contact 
with  a  small  quantity  of  very  pure  water,  which  is  reduced  to  a 
minute  of  subdivision  by  pulverisation." 

By  referring  to  PI.  XIX.,  Fig.  i,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  aif 
and  water  are  comminuted  by  this  device  probably  as  finely  as 
possible,  and  brought  into  intimate  contact  with  one  another. 
The  air  can,  moreover,  be  measured  with  tolerable  accuracy,  so 
that  there  is  good  reason  to  expect  to  find  in  the  w^ater  all  of  the 
contained  solids  which  are  small  enough  to  pass  through  the  jet 
of  the  atomiser,  and  all  of  the  gases  and  salts  which  are  soluble 
in  water. 

*  Extracted  from  the  Report  of  Surgeon-General  P.  L.  Wales,  U.S.  Navy, 
for  i88q. — Washington  :  Government  Printing  Office,  1882. 


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EXTERNAL  AIR  OF  WASHINGTON.         183 

But  it  is  with  the  Microscopic  examination  of  the  Air  that  we 
feel  most  interested,  the  materials  for  which  have  been  obtained 
in  the  following  different  ways  : — 

I. — Evaporation  to  dryness  of  a  drop  of  the  fluids  resulting 
from  atomisation,  and  from  condensation  of  moisture  upon  cold 
surfaces. 

2. — Air-dust  collected  upon  slides  and  small  flattened  watch- 
glass-like  discs,  by  simple  exposure  within  and  without  doors. 

3. — Air-dust  collected  and  retained  by  a  drop  of  glycerine 
upon  glass  slips  exposed  to  the  air. 

4. — Air-dust  collected  by  the  contrivance  represented  in  Fig. 
2,  PI.  XIX.,  which  consists  essentially  of  a  double-winged  vane, 
turning  freely  upon  an  agate  bearing,  and  carrying  at  the  end 
opposed  to  the  wind  a  glass  funnel  with  its  stem  bent  at  right 
angles.  Beneath  the  end  of  the  funnel,  held  horizontally  by  spring 
clips,  is  a  glass  slip,  upon  which  is  a  drop  of  glycerine.  A  move- 
able weight  serves  to  balance  the  two  ends  of  the  vane,  and  the 
upright  rod  {a)  can  be  unscrewed  from  the  tripod  foot,  and  fixed 
into  any  wooden  surface.  For  this  purpose  it  terminates  in  a 
sharp  steel  point,  not  shown  in  the  figure. 

The  principle  of  this  apparatus  is  not  essentially  different  from 
that  of  the  aeroscopes  devised  by  Pouchet,  Madox,  and  Cunning- 
ham. In  these  instruments  the  funnel  has  been  drawn  out  to  a 
fine  point,  so  as  to  impinge  upon  a  thin  cover  or  slip  set  vertically, 
and  the  glycerine  with  which  the  latter  was  covered  had  a  tendency 
to  absorb  moisture  from  the  air  and  run  off  from  the  glass  after 
long  exposure.  By  bending  the  tube  of  the  funnel  at  right  angles 
this  difficulty  has  been  obviated  in  the  apparatus  here  figured, 
and  some  improvement  has  been  made  in  the  details  of  its 
construction. 

Moisture  which  had  been  impregnated  with  the  contents  of 
the  air,  either  by  atomisation,  condensation  upon  cold  surfaces, 
or  by  the  natural  washing  process  of  rain  and  snow-falls,  when 
dried  upon  a  glass  slip  has  been  found  to  contain  the  following 
substances  : — 

I. — Epithelium  from  skin  and  mucous  membranes. 
2. — Vegetable  epithelium  and  unrecognised  debris. 


184  AN  EXAMINATION   OF  THE 

3. — Hairs  and  threads  of  various  fabrics. 
4. — Particles  of  sand,  glass,  metals,  soot,  and  starch. 
5. — Parts  of  chitinous  shells  of  small  insects. 
6. — Bits  of  feathers,  and  the  pappus  bristles   of  composite 
plants. 

7. — Minute,  highly-refracting  particles,  simulating  micrococcus, 
8. — Crystals  of  various  forms  and  sizes. 
9. — Pollen-spores  of  many  different  kinds. 
10. — Leaf-hairs. 

II. — Mycelium  and  spores  of  fungi. 
12. — Nucleated  cells,  resembling  leucocytes. 
13. — Bacteria,  as  bacterium^  vibrio^    bacillus,    and  micrococcus ; 
and  under  the  forms  of  aggregation  kno^vn  as  zooglcea,  "  swarms  " 
leptothrix,  and  toriila. 

When  observed  fresh,  after  preservation  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
time  in  well-stoppered  glass  bottles,  the  same  moisture  has 
contained,  besides  many  of  the  objects  above  noted  : — 

I. — Living  algae. 

2. — Amoeba,  flagellate  and  ciliate  infusoria. 

3.— Fungi. 

4. — Bacteria  of  many  forms. 

Specimens  collected  by  the  vane  microscope  (Fig.  2)  and 
mounted  in  glycerine  abounded  in  pollen,  leaf-hairs,  spores  of 
sphxria,  epithelium,  and  detritus,  both  organic  and  inorganic. 

Dust,  collected  dry,  by  simple  exposure  of  sHps  and  discs  to 
the  air,  contained  sand,  soot,  etc.,  and  numerous  crystals,  mostly 
rods  and  radiating  needles. 

And,  finally,  the  discs  and  tubes  containing  collections 
made  in  hospital-wards  abounded  in  epithelium,  starch-cells, 
resembling  leucocytes,  and  threads  and  hairs. 

Epithelium,  as  appears  from  the  foregoing  summary,  is  always 
and  everywhere  present  in  the  air.  Considering  the  probability 
of  the  communication  of  contagious  exanthemata  by  this  means, 
the  constant  presence  of  epithelium  in  the  air  becomes  a  fact  of 
considerable  hygienic  importance. 

Particles  of  glass  are  often  found  upon  air-slides,  which  do 
not  come  from  the  air  itself,  but  from  the  tube  by  which  the  drop 


EXTERNAL  AIR  OF  WASHINGTON.  185 

to  be  examined  is  transferred  to  the  slide,  and  which  is  often 
allowed  to  rest  on  the  slide  for  a  time,  while  the  soiled  contents 
of  the  drop  are  subsiding.  When  the  glass  tubes  used  for  this 
purpose  have  been  heated  to  incipient  fusion,  so  that  the  sharp 
edges  of  their  orifices  are  rounded,  no  particles  of  glass  appear  in 
the  specimen. 

Entire  shells  of  acarini  have  been  not  uncommon  in  the  air. 
Other  insect  detritus  have  been  mostly  scales  of  lepidoptera  and 
parts  of  flies  and  spiders.  The  pappus  bristles  of  many  of  the 
composites^  especially  the  late  flowering  asters,  are  often  found  in 
the  air ;  a  common  form  resembles  miniature  stems  of  equisetnm. 

The  curious  pollen  of  the  pine,  and  the  leaf  hairs  of  various 
plants  are  among  the  commonest  objects  in  the  air  of  the  early 
spring.  Later  in  the  season  the  place  of  these  forms  is  taken  by 
other  kinds  of  pollen — notably,  that  of  several  kinds  of  grass 
have  been  recognised. 


EXPLANATION    OF   PLATE  XIX. 


Fig.     1. — Apparatus  separating  organic  matter  from  the  air  : — 

J.,  Glass  cylinder,  closed  by  rubber  stopper,  through  which 
pass  jB,  a  Richardson's  atomiser  cut  short,  and  0,  a  glass  tube 
ground  as  a  stopper,  into  the  bottle  D.  Air,  forced  in  by 
the  hand-pump,  £*,  atomises  the  water  in  A^  and  passes  out 
by  the  tube  0,  carrying  a  small  portion  of  the  atomised 
water  with  it,  which  is  stopped  in  the  bottles  D  and  D' .  In 
D  the  tubes  are  ground  to  fit  as  stoppers.  D'  is  closed  by  a 
perforated  rubber  stopper.  ¥^  pipette  and  rubber  tube  for 
washing. 

,,     2. — Contrivance  for  collecting  dust  from  the  air  on  a  glass  slide, 
described  on  page  184. 


[  186  ] 

®n  tbe  peronoepora^* 

By   George   Norman,    M.R.C.S.E. 
Plates  20,  21,  2  2,  23,  24. 


First  Part. 


AMONGST  the  numerous  groups  of  parasitic  fungi  that  have 
been  investigated  by  mycologists  during  recent  years,  pro- 
bably none,  excepting  the  Bacteria,  have  received  so  much 
attention  as  the  two  closely-allied  ones  of  Saprolegnia  and 
Peronospora.  These  two  groups  have  not  only  much  in  com- 
mon between  themselves,  but  as  regards  their  development,  etc., 
are  so  closely  connected  with  the  Algse  as  to  bear  out  the  opinion 
that  has  been  expressed  by  some  botanists,  that  the  lower  Algae 
and  Fungi  pass  into  one  another  at  one  or  more  points. 

The  Saprolegnie^  were  fully  treated  of  in  the  last  Vol.  of  this 
Journal,*  and  on  the  present  occasion  I  propose  to  take  up  the 
Peronospora  in  the  same  manner.  The  few  species  oi  Peronospora 
that  were  formerly  known  were  at  first  included  in  the  neighbour- 
ing genus,  Botrytis,  but  as  fresh  specimens  were  discovered,  and 
decided  differences  were  thought  to  be  observed  between  them  and 
Botrytis,  a  new  genus  was  formed  and  called  Peronospoi'a.  This 
genus  now  contains  upwards  of  forty  species.  Peronospora  belongs 
to  the  family  Hyphoniycetes,  order  Miicedmes,  and  the  following  is 
Cooke's  definition  of  the  genus  : — "  Parasitic,  threads  mostly 
inarticulate.  Spores  of  two  kinds.  Conidia  on  the  tips  of  the 
branchlets.  Oospores  large  and  globose  in  the  creeping  myce- 
lium." 

This  definition  is  somewhat  vague,  and  De  Bary,  who  has 
devoted  much  attention  to  this  group  of  fungi,  proposes  to  include 
a  far-removed  group,  Cystopiis,  or  White  Rust,  with  the  Pero?io- 
spora,  in  one  genus,  and  to  subdivide  them  as  follows  : — 

I. — Cystopus.  Conidiophores  grown  in  large  bunches,  coni- 
dia being  developed  in  single  rows  in  basipetal  order. 

2. — Peronospora. — From  a  tree-like  mycelium  conidiophores 
arise,  singly  or  in  small  bunches  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  and 
have  no  successors  in  the  direct  line. 

*  See  Vol.  II.,  p.  185. 


ON  THE  PERONOSPOK^.  187 

3. — Phytophthora.  Differs  from  the  last  in  its  multiple  and 
successive  conidia,  which,  when  shed,  leave  swellings  on  the 
branches.     This  section  includes  P.  vifestafis,  the  Potato-Fungus. 

Although  Ferojwspora  has  become  associated  in  most  people's 
minds  with  the  potato  disease,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the 
potato  is  only  affected  by  one  species  of  Feronospora,  and  that 
other  species  attack  nearly  all  our  ordinary  vegetables,  such  as 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  spinach,  lettuce,  turnip,  parsnip,  pea,  tomato, 
onion,  etc.,  but  fortunately  with  not  the  same  virulence  as  in  the 
case  of  the  potato. 

The  general  characteristics  common  to  all  three  divisions  are, 
that  the  ripe  conidia,  when  placed  in  water,  produce  zoospores ; 
which  penetrate  the  plants,  and  ceasing  to  move,  develop  threads, 
or  mycelium.  By  another,  a  sexual  mode  of  propagation,  the 
oozonia,  after  being  fertiUsed  by  the  antheridia,  produce  from 
their  protoplasm  a  thick-walled  oospore.  Mycelial  threads  sprout 
from  this  latter,  and  the  above  process  is  repeated.  A  consider- 
able period  of  inactivity  may,  however,  precede  the  germination  of 
the  oospore,  which  in  this  case  hibernates  for  the  winter,  whilst  its 
host  decays.  The  conidia  propagate  and  spread  the  fungus  during 
the  summer,  but  do  not  live  through  the  winter. 

The  Peronospora^  including  Phytophthora^   form  a  mycelium 
which  is  neither  so  thick  nor  so  gelatinous  as    Cystopus.     The 
mycelium  usually  penetrates  not  only  the  intercellular  passages  of 
the  plant  which  nourishes  it,  but  also  perforates  the  cells  them- 
selves, and  in  some  instances  produces  little  protrusions  which 
press  against  the  cell-walls  and  become  fixed,  thus  resembling  in 
all  respects  the  suckers  which  are  invariably  found  on  the  myce- 
lium   of    Cystopus.     Long,    slender   branches   of    the   mycelium 
emerge  into  the  air  through  the  stomata  of  the  host,  at  the  end  of 
which  ellipsoidal  conidia  are  produced.     In  some  cases,   these 
conidia  fall  off,  and  at  once  put  out  a  germinating  filament  {e.g., 
P.  gangliforjiiis,  the  lettuce  Peronospora,  and  P.  parasitica,  the 
cabbage  and  turnip  Peronospora.)     In  other  cases,  the  protoplasm 
first  escapes  out  of  the  conidium  and  forms  a  roundish  cell,  which 
at  once  puts  forth   a   germinating  filament  {e.g..,  P.  pygnicBa,  the 
Anemone  Peronospora).     But  quite   a  different   process   occurs 
with  other  conidia,  which  are  generally  of  a  larger  size  than  those 


188  ON  THE  PERONOSPOR^. 

previously  described.  When  one  of  these  conidia  falls  off  and 
reaches  moisture,  such  as  a  drop  of  rain  or  dew,  it  immediately 
breaks  up  into  a  swarm  of  from  six  to  fifteen  zoospores  {e.g.^  P. 
i?ifestajis,  the  potato  fungus,  and  F.  7iivea^  the  parsnip  Peronospora). 
These  zoospores  are  little  masses  of  protoplasm  furnished  with 
two  lash-like  tails,  by  means  of  which  they  move  about  so  rapidly 
that  it  is  difficult  to  follow  their  movements  in  the  field  of  the 
microscope.  In  about  half-an-hour  this  swarming  process  comes 
to  an  end,  the  zoospores  become  firmly  attached  to  the  cuticle  of 
the  host,  invest  themselves  with  a  thin  cell-wall,  and  begin  to 
germinate. 

In  all  these  cases,  so  potent  is  the  mycelium  that  it  is  capable 
of  at  once  corroding,  boring,  and  entering  the  epidermis  of  the 
leaf,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  well-known  brown  or  black  spots  so 
characteristic  of  the  fungus.  Whilst  on  this  subject,  I  cannot 
omit  quoting  the  careful  observations  of  a  recent  observer,  H. 
Marshall  Ward,  published  in  the  Quart.  Journ.  Micro.  Science  of 
last  year.  He  found  that^  while  the  mycelium  of  the  fungus 
absorbed  the  protoplasm  from  the  cells  of  the  affected  plant,  it  left 
the  starch-grains  in  the  tubers  of  the  dahlias  and  potatoes  untouch- 
ed ;  and  he  desired  to  know  how  it  was,  that  at  a  late  stage  in  the 
development  of  the  fungus,  the  starch-grains,  cell-nucleus,  and  even 
cell-walls  disappear  ?  He  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  remaining 
changes  in  the  cell-contents  are  effected  h^  Bacteria,  carried  into  the 
invaded  tissues  by  the  hyphae  of  the  fungus ;  that  these  Bacteria 
reduce  the  rest  of  the  protoplasm  and  nucleus,  first  to  a  soluble 
mass,  and  then  cause  the  dissolution  of  the  starch-grains.  At 
first,  the  action  of  the  Bacteria  is  taken  advantage  of  by  the 
fungus,  but  eventually  the  mycelium  of  the  latter  suffers  from  the 
dominance  of  the  former,  and  becomes  in  part  a  prey  to  its 
companion,  not,  however,  before  it  has  formed  its  well-protected 
oospores,  which  lie  unhurt  among  the  rotting  debris. 

The  mention  of  the  oospore  brings  us  back  again  to  the  repro- 
ductive process  in  the  Peronospora.  The  propagation  of  the  fungus 
by  means  of  conidia  and  zoospores  is  only  an  asexual  process. 
There  is  also  a  sexual  propagation,  as  in  the  Saprolegniece.  The 
sexual  organs  of  the  Peronospora  are  developed  in  the  interior  of 
the  tissue  of  their  host.     Spherically  dilated  ends  of  branches  of 


SELECTED  NOTES,  ETC.  189 

the  mycelium  shape  themselves  into  oogonia,  in  each  of  which  an 
oosphere  is  formed  out  of  a  portion  of  the  protoplasm.  From 
another  branch  of  the  mycelium,  a  branchlet  grows  towards  the 
oogonium,  swells,  and  becomes  closely  attached  to  it ;  and  the 
thicker  part  becoming  separated  by  a  septum  (just  as  takes  place 
with  the  oogonium  itself),  developes  into  an  antheridium.  As 
soon  as  the  oosphere  is  formed,  a  fine  branch  of  the  antheridium 
reaches  it,  penetrating  the  membrane  of  the  oogonium.  After 
fertilisation,  the  oosphere  becomes  surrounded  by  a  coat,  which 
thickens  and  forms  a  rough,  dark-brown  external  covering,  or  exo- 
spore,  and  an  inner  endospore.  These  oospores,  which  remain 
dormant  throughout  the  winter  and  then  germinate,  are  the  so- 
called  "  resting-spores,"  and  a  curious  point  in  connection  with 
this  is  that  the  resting  spore  in  some  cases  attains  its  full  devel- 
opment on  a  host  other  than  the  one  on  which  it  is  usually  found. 
Thus,  the  resting-spore  of  the  lettuce  Peronospora  is  more  fre- 
quently found  on  common  groundsel,  or  on  sow-thistles,  than  on 
the  lettuce;  and  De  Bary  suggests  that  some  member  of  the 
order  Scrophidariacece  may  yet  turn  out  to  be  a  commoner  host  for 
the  resting-spores  of  the  potato  fungus  than  the  potato  plant 
itself.  De  Bary  also  suggests  that  in  some  cases  where  the  rest- 
ing-spores are  not  found,  the  mycelium  of  the  fungus  may  become 
perennial,  and  thus  carry  the  fungus  over  the  winter  by  discharging 
the  function  of  hibernation. 


Selcctcb  1Hotc6  from  tbc  Socict^'0 

motc*=©ooft0- 


Argulus  foliaceus  from  Stickle-back  and  other  fishes,  are  not 
difficult  to  obtain,  as .  the  Stickle-backs  found  in  clayey  pools 
generally  possess  several.  They  should  be  lifted  off  the  fish  with 
a  knife,  and  dropped  at  once  into  the  mounting  medium.  Glycerine- 
jelly,  or  Dean's  gelatine,  is  preferable  to  balsam  for  such  delicate 


190  SELECTED  NOTES  FROM 

Crustacese,  for  when  so  mounted  they  are  susceptible  to  polarised 
light,  or  the  paraboloid  may  be  used.  Few  crustaceans,  when 
alive,  form  more  beautiful  objects,  whether  viewed  transparent, 
polarised,  or  with  spot-lens. 

Thos.  Curties. 


Caligus  rupens  is  a  common  parasite  on  sea-fish,  and  may 
often  be  found  on  salmon,  etc.,  at  the  fishmongers.  They  are 
popularly  known  as  Sea-Lice.  The  females  are  furnished  with  two 
long  strings  of  ova,  which  give  them  a  very  peculiar  appearance. 

H.  E.  Freeman. 


Acari  from  Chaffinch. — This  mite  very  much  resembles  one 
found  in  a  cheap  quality  of  raw  sugar,  and  is  commonly  known  as 
the  sugar-mite.  E.  Lovett. 


By  staining  this  mite,  the  curious  pads  which  serve  as  feet 
would  be  shown  very  plainly  ;  otherwise,  they  are  almost  invisible. 

H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 

Eggs  of  Vapourer-Moth,  0.  Antiqua,  are  attached  to  the 
cocoon,  on  which  the  wingless  female,  after  crawling  out  of  the 
pupa-case  and  receiving  the  male,  which  is  attracted  by  a  sense 
peculiar  to  a  few  species,  such  as  Carpini,  Qtierciis,  etc.,  deposits 
her  eggs,  and  then  dies.  E.  Lovett. 


May  I  venture  to  differ  from  Mr.  Lovett  on  what  he  says  about 
the  Female  of  the  Vapourer-Moth  dying  after  depositing  her  eggs  ? 
Two  or  three  years  ago,  one  of  these  creatures  made  her  nest  in  a 
chink  on  the  outside  of  one  of  my  windows,  and  I  watched  her 
with  interest.  She  laid  several  eggs,  but  all  had  been  hatched, 
and  I  had  caught  several  full-grown  vapourers  to  put  into  my 
cabinet,  whilst  she  was  still  alive.  I  killed  her,  however,  because 
I  wanted  her  to  grace  my  cabinet  also,  and  there  she  is  now. 

E.  E.  Jarrett. 


Exuvia  of  Pupa  of  Circopides  (Frog-Hopper).— A  great 
quantity  of  these  were  found  on  the  underside  of  oak-leaves  in 
Goodnestone  Park,  in  August;  sometimes  as  many  as  six  or  seven 
were  found  on  one  leaf.  They  are  attached  by  a  thread  or  two, 
probably  to  assist  the  insect  in  extricating  itself  I  have  searched 
the  oaks  at  Wood  Green  without  finding  a  single  specimen. 

H.  E.  Freeman. 


THE    society's    NOTE-BOOKS.  191 

Exuvia  of  Earwig.— I  found  a  great  number  of  these  in  a 
sheltered  crevice  of  a  garden-wheelbarrow.  They  were  in  good 
condition,  are  easily  mounted,  and  are  extremely  interesting. 

E.    LOVETT. 


Foot  of  Larva  of  Puss-Moth  (Cerura  vinula).— These  larvae 
are  common  on  willow  and  poplar  trees  during  July  and  August, 
and  take  a  firmer  hold  with  their  feet  than  any  other  larvae  I  know. 
No  amount  of  beating  the  branches  will  shake  them  off  the  stem. 

E.    LOVETT. 


Winged  Atom  is  one  of  the  smallest  insects  known  ;  it  is  one 
of  the  IchneumoiiidcE^  and  is  so  small  that  its  larvae  live  in  the 
eggs  of  Lepidoptera  instead  of  in  the  bodies  of  Caterpillars.  I  do 
not  know  its  specific  name. 

It  may,  perhaps,  interest  some  to  know  how  it  was  mounted. 
I  saw  several  of  these  creatureS;,  crawling  (like  moving  grains  of 
dust)  on  a  window-pane,  and  thinking  they  might  be  interesting 
for  the  microscope,  I  transferred  a  few  by  means  of  a  damp 
camel's-hair  brush  to  some  glass  slips.  I  then  put  a  drop  of  tur- 
pentine on  each,  and  allowed  it  to  soak  for  one  minute ;  then  added 
diluted  balsam,  and  laid  on  the  cover-glass.  Only  this  one  turned 
out  well ;  the  rest  went  to  "  squash."  The  posterior  wings  are 
very  minute,  and  may  pass  unnoticed  at  first  sight.  They  are 
close  to  the  base  of  the  anterior  wings,  and  seem  almost  to  join 
them  The  antennae  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  insect.  I  wonder  what  is  their  function  in  this  particular 
insect.  Perhaps  the  clubbed  ends  are,  like  the  tips  of  our 
fingers,  highly  sensitive  to  touch;  and  for  what,  then,  do  they 
require  so  delicate  a  touch  ?  Sight  would  seem  to  be  the  most 
useful  sense  for  discovering  the  eggs  of  Butterflies  or  Moths. 

F.  J.  Allen. 


Hairs  from  Foot,  Throat,  and  Tail  of  Ornithorhyncus  Para- 
doxus.— The  hairs,  as  well  as  the  animal,  are  of  an  extraordinary 
make,  as  will  be  seen  by  tracing  a  single  hair  from  the  root  to  the 
tip.  The  broad  blades  terminating  some  of  the  hairs  are  coated 
with  imbricated  scales. 

The  animal  is  a  native  of  New  South  Wales,  and  is  called  the 
Water-Mole.  It  has  a  mole-like  body,  about  i8  inches  long,  and 
a  head  similar  to  a  duck. 

A.  Nicholson. 


192  REVIEWS. 

The  structure  of  the  hair  shows,  both,  that  of  wool  (at  the  base) 
and  hairs  (in  the  expansion).  This  form  is  not  peculiar  to  the 
Monotreinata.  That  of  the  Gopher,  a  small  animal  in  the  Missi- 
sippi  Valley,  U.S.A.,  being  nearly  similar  but  finer. 

E.  Hunter. 


Like  the  beaver  and  other  fur-bearing  creatures,  the  Ornitho- 
rhyncus has  two  kinds  of  hair  :  one  fine,  apparently  for  warmth ; 
the  other  coarser  and  longer.  In  the  specimen  may  be  seen  how 
in  this  curious  animal  the  fine  hair  sometimes  terminates  in  the 
coarse.  As  in  burrowing  creatures,  the  hair  has  narrow  parts, 
which  act  as  joints,  and  enables  the  animal  to  go  backwards  in  his 
hole  without  the  hair  changing  its  direction  in  the  skin. 

T.  Inman. 


1Rcvicw)9. 


A  Synopsis  of  the  Bacteria  and  Yeast  Fungi  and  allied 
species  (Schizomycetes  and  Saccharomycetes).  By  W.  B.  Groves, 
B. A.,  with  87  Illustrations.  {London:  Chaito  and  Windiis,   1884.) 

This  work  treats  of  the  subject  in  hand  in  a  very  thorough  and 
exhaustive  manner. 

The  first  chapter,  occupying  56  pages,  is  devoted  to  various 
genera,  included  in  the  group  Schizomycetes^  viz. — Micrococcus, 
Ascococcus,  Cohnia,  Bacterium,  Bacillus,  &c.,  of  which  altogether 
79  species  are  enumerated,  described,  and  illustrated  by  57  figures. 

Chapter  II.  treats  of  the  Saccharomycetes  or  the  Yeast  Fungi. 
This  group  is  composed  exclusively  of  the  genus  Saccharomyces, 
and  has  12  species. 

We  have  next  a  chapter  on  Classification,  followed  by  a  des- 
cription of  the  Protean  or  Little-known  species,  in  which  are 
found  several  of  the  lesser-known  Bacteria,  Bacilli,  and  several 
others.  In  all,  133  species  of  these  minute  fungi  are  described, 
many  of  them  being  carefully  illustrated.  There  are  three  Ap- 
pendices, viz. — On  the  unit  of  Microscopical  Measurement,  on  the 
staining  of  "  Bacillus  Tuberculosus,"  and  on  diseases  produced  by 
the  Schizomycetes,  of  which  we  are  sorry  to  find  a  tolerably  long 
list  is  possible  to  be  given. 


REVIEWS.  193 

We  recommend  this  book  to  the  notice  of  all  Mycologists, 
feeling  sure  that  the  name  of  the  writer  is  a  sufficient  guarantee  for 
the  accuracy  of  its  contents. 


Messrs.  Swajt  Sonnerschem  and  Co.  have  favoured  us  with  a 
number  of  their  "Young  Collector's  Handbooks." 

These,  each  in  a  neat  wrapper,  are  published  at  one  penny,  and 
consist  of  32  pages  of  letter-press,  interspersed  with  a  number  of 
engravings.  They  are  written  by  well-known  men  of  science,  each 
being  an  authority  in  his  own  special  department. 

Those  already  pubUshed  are  Beetles,  Butterflies  and  Moths, 
and  the  Orders  of  Insects,  by  W.  F.  Kirby ;  British  Birds,  by  R. 
Bowdler  Sharpe  ;  Greek  and  Roman  Coins,  by  Barclay  V.  Head ; 
Flowering  Plants,  by  J.  Britten ;  Shells,  by  B.  B.  Woodward ;  and 
Postage  Stamps,  by  W.  T.  Ogilvie.  These  are  most  decidedly 
wonders  of  cheap  literature,  and  we  trust  that  all  our  young  friends 
will  lose  no  time  in  procuring  copies  of  them.  We  are  glad  to  learn 
that  others  are  in  course  of  publication,  and  it  is  promised  that 
the  series  will  be  very  much  extended.  The  perusal  of  these 
Penny  Handbooks  has  afforded  us  much  pleasure. 


The  Wonders  of  Plant-Life  under  the  Microscope.  By 
Sophie  Bledsoe  Herrick,  1884.    {London:   W.  H.  Allen  and  Co.) 

Miss  Herrick  has  put  the  marvels  of  Plant-Life  in  a  very  agree- 
able form,  and  described  them  in  a  most  interesting  manner.  The 
ten  chapters  into  which  the  work  is  divided,  treat  of  the  Beginning 
of  Life,  Single-celled  Green  Plants,  Fungi  and  Lichens,  Liverworts 
and  Mosses,  Ferns,  Physiology  of  Plants,  Corn  and  its  Congeners, 
the  Microscope  among  the  Flowers,  Pitcher  Plants,  and  Insecti- 
vorous Plants.  The  Volume  comprises  248  pages,  and  is  illus- 
trated by  85  splendidly  executed  engravings. 


Baldness  and  Greyness,  their  Etiology,  Pathology,  and 
Treatment,  by  Tom  Robinson,  M.D.  Second  Edition,  Enlarged 
and  Re-written.     {London  :   Henry  Kimpton.) 

In  this  work,  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Hair  receive 
the  Author's  first  attention,  after  which,  the  colour  and  texture  of 
the  hair  is  discussed ;  then  follows  a  description  of  the  various 
diseases  to  which  the  hair  is  subject,  with  their  various  treatments. 
To  the  microscopist  the  two  first  chapters  will  prove  of  much 
interest,  for  although  no  plates  or  illustrations  are  given,  the  chap- 
ters are  so  intelligently  written,  that  a  large  amount  of  useful  infor- 
mation will  be  gained  by  their  perusal. 


[  194  ] 


Correepon&ence* 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  Microscopy  and  Natural  Science ^ 

Dear  Sir, — 

Will  you  allow  me  to  say  that  I  am  exceedingly  interested 
in  Pond  Life,  and  though  I  am  acquainted  with  many  of  its  living 
forms,  I  occasionally  meet  with  some  which  are  unknown  to  me  ? 
Will  any  of  your  readers — with  your  permission — undertake 
through  the  medium  of  your  columns  to  assist  me  ?  If  I  may 
further  suggest  the  desirability  of  having  a  list  of  persons  willing 
to  help  in  this  way,  published  in  your  Journal,  I  feel  sure  that 
some  of  your  readers  will  be  so  good  as  to  render  valuable 
assistance  of  this  kind  to  those  who  are  really  anxious  to  learn. 

I  am,  dear  Sir,  yours  truly, 

Jno.  R.  Tiffen. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Joiwnal  of  Microscopy  and  Natural  SciejiceT 

Dear  Sir, — 

I  am  much  interested  in  your  Journal,  and  feel  sure  that 
your  readers  cannot  fail  to  be  pleased  with  the  able  manner  in 
which  it  is  conducted.  Excuse  the  suggestion,  but  now  that  it  is 
so  well  known  and  circulated,  it  appears  to  me  very  desirable  that 
it  should  become  the  acknowledged  and  generally  adopted  Journal 
of  the  Microscopical  Societies  in  general.  A  means  of  complete 
and  satisfactory  intercommunication  of  this  kind  is  very  much 
needed.  How  do  matters  really  stand  now  as  regards  Micro- 
scopy ?  There  is  the  "Royal  Microscopical  Society's  Journal,"  but 
this,  through  want  of  space,  frequently  avoids  recording  the 
doings  of  provincial  and  other  societies.  In  plain,  sober  truth, 
there  is  at  present  no  recognised  organ  in  which  the  various 
Papers  and  other  matters  of  interest  can  be  recorded.  Why  not 
carry  out  thoroughly  the  work  you  have  begun  so  well  ?  I  would 
venture  to  suggest  that  no  time  should  be  lost  in  making  your 
Journal  the  medium,  not  only  of  pubhshing  Papers  read,  but  also 
of  giving  regular  accounts  of  any  matters  of  interest  that  may 
transpire  at  the  various  and  numerous  meetings  of  Microscopical 
Societies  throughout  the  country.  At  present  each  society  seems 
to  have  an  isolated  and  separate  existence,  and  to  be  living  a  sort 
of  detached  life,  when  each  and  all  should  be  working  together  as 
a  harmonious  whole,  and  helping  and  encouraging  each  other  in 
their  common  object.     I  submit  that  this  can  only  be  attained  by 


CUKRENT  NOTICES  AND  MEMORANDA.  195 

means  of  a  properly    accredited  and  admittedly  representative 
Journal.     Why  not  let  yours  hold  this  position  ? 

I  am,  dear  Sir,  yours  faithfully, 

A  President. 


To  the  Editor  of''''  The  Jotir7ial  of  Microscopy  and  Natural  Science.^'' 

My  Dear  Sir, — 

I  send  you  a  pamphlet  of  mine,  read  last  year  at  the  Royal 
Society,  Victoria,  on  Bacilli  in  Living  Plants,  to  which  subject  I 
shall  be  glad  if  you  will  draw  attention.  Also  I  enclose  a  paper 
of  mine  lately  read  to  our  Society,  but  which  is  not  likely  to  see 
print  for  some  time,  and  if  you  like  to  utilise  it  in  part,  or  wholly, 
you  are  welcome.  The  subject,  I  believe,  is  quite  new,  and  I 
think  may  lead  to  interesting  inquiry,  and  shall  be  glad  to  have  it 
set  on  foot  among  your  country  members,  who,  I  should  imagine, 
would  be  able  during  the  foliage  season  of  England  to  experi- 
ment in  the  same  direction ;  but  I  am  desirous  of  obtaining 
opinions  on  this  subject,  and  when  you  notice  any,  please  let  me 
know  where  to  look  for  them.  If  you  could  direct  attention  to  it 
by  Sachs  in  Germany,  I  shall  take  it  as  a  favour,  for  I  am  very 
much  interested  in  the  process,  and  he  is  a  likely  man  to  mete 
out  its  worth.  I  suppose  I  may  be  able  to  carry  on  the  investiga- 
tion, but  time  is  required,  and  if  more  is  forthcoming  I  will  let 
you  have  it,  if  approved  of 

Hoping  you  are  well  and  prospering, 

I  remain  yours  sincerely, 

Melbourne.  Thomas  Shearman  Ralph. 

[We  hope  to  publish  the  other  paper  alluded  to  by  Dr.  Ralph 
in  our  next. — Ed.] 


Current  IRotice^  anb  flDcmoranba* 


Mr.  Chas.  V.  Smith,  of  Carmarthen,  has  sent  us  his  Classified 
Catalogue  of  very  valuable  and  instructive  slides,  illustrating  the 
Structure,  Growth,  and  Reproduction  of  Plants. 


The  Science   Monthly  keeps   up  its  character  for  first-class 
articles.     The  "  Leader  of  Science,"  whose  portrait  is  selected  for 


196  CURRENT  NOTICES  AND  MEMORANDA. 

the  June  part,  is  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer.  The  illustrations  are 
excellent ;  Vol.  I.  is  completed  with  the  present  part.  In  July, 
we  understand  that  "  Science  Monthly  "  will  be  permanently  dou- 
bled, both  in  size  and  price. 


The  Naturalist's  World  and  Scientific  Record,  has  also 
been  enlarged  from  i6  to  20  pages,  without  an  increase  in  price. 
We  are  glad  to  see  this,  and  to  notice  that  the  interesting  character 
of  its  articles  is  well  sustained. 


Cotton,  Wool,  and  Iron  :  The  Boston  Journal  of  Com- 
merce.    {Boston^   U.S.A.) 

This  is  the  most  readable  of  all  the  trade  Journals  it  has  been 
our  fortune  to  meet  with.  The  Microscope,  in  its  Editor's  hands, 
finds  constant  employment,  and  appears  to  do  good  work  in  the 
detection  of  adulteration  in  the  various  fibres.  A  long  article  is 
devoted  in  the  last  copy  received,  to  the  detection  of  the  "  Oil- 
pocket  "  in  the  fibre  of  cotton. 


We  have  mounted  a  great  number  of  the  specimens  prepared  by 
Mons.  S.  Louis  (France),  and  sold  by  Mr.  Wm.  West,  of  Bradford, 
and  find  them  well  prepared,  abundantly  supplied,  and  that  they 
make  very  excellent  Slides. 

Each  series  is  supplied  in  a  neat  wood  box,  the  Diatoms, 
Algae,  and  many  other  objects,  being  in  separate  glass  tubes. 
Directions  for  mounting  will  be  found  in  each  box. 


Messrs.  Sinel  &  Co.'s  Unmounted  Marine  Objects. 

A  correspondent  writes  us  that  he  obtained  a  tube  of  the  fol- 
lowing Marine  organisms,  viz  : — Porcellana  lo7igicornis.,  Hippolyte 
varians,  Nebalia  bipes^  Asteria  gibbosa,  Ophiocoma  neglecta.,  and 
Gammarus  marmits. 

When  mounted  in  cells,  with  preservative  media,  some  very 
beautiful  results  were  obtained,  particularly  when  the  spot-lens 
and  2-inch  objective  were  used. 


Exchange. — Wanted,  Diatoms,  on  Algae  or  in  mud,  from  all  the 
tropical  seas.  Will  give  in  exchange  a  large  quantity  of  fine 
selected  diatoms,  or  other  slides,  or  cash. 

J.  C.  Rinnbock, 

14,  Simmering,  Wien,  Austria. 


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THE   JOURNAL  OF   MICROSCOPY 

AND 

NATURAL   SCIENCE: 

the  journal  of 
The   Postal  Microscopical  Society. 


OCTOBER,     1884. 


®n  tbe  peronoepor^. 

By   George   Norman,    M.R.C.S.E. 


Plates  20,  21,  22,  23,  24. 


Second    Part. 


AVING  given  a  general  account  of  the  life-history 
of  the  Peronosporoe,  we  can  now  proceed  to  examine 
some  of  the  more  striking  members  of  the  genus, 
beginning  with  those  least  known,  and  reserving  the 
potato  fungus  to  the  last. 

P.  Gangliformis,  the  Lettuce  Peronospora. 

Threads  of  the  mycelium  stout,  now  and  then 
torulose;  suckers  vesicular,  obovate,  orclavate;  fertile 
threads,  2 — 6  times  dichotomous,  sometimes  tri- 
stems  and  primary  branches  slender,  dilated  or 
inflated  above;  the  ultimate  ramuli  inflated  at  the  apex  into 
a  turbinate  or  sub-globose  vesicle,  bearing  from  2 — 8  spicules  ; 

p 


chotomous ; 


198  ON  THE  PERONOSPOKiE. 

acrospores  minute,   sub-globose ;    apices   with   broad,   depressed 
papillae,    produced  in  the  spicular  processes.       Oospores  small, 
globose,    and  of  a   yellowish    tawny  colour.       I  quote  the  fol- 
lowing from  Mr.  Worthington  Smith,  in  the  Gardener's  Chroni- 
cle for  Nov.,  1883  : — "  As  too  often  happens  with  names  of  fungi, 
various  botanists  have,  with  insufficient  reason,  altered  the  name 
of  the  Lettuce  fungus.     Corda  was  the  first  to  do  this,  and  he 
changed  Botrytis  to  Fero?tospora,  and  since  then  the  fungus  has 
been  generally  known  as  F.  ga?iglto?iiformts.     De  Bary  did  not 
approve  of  '  ganglioniformis,'  so  altered  it  to  *  gangliformis.'   Then 
Tulasne  re-named   the  fungus  P.  parasitica,  var.   lastiiccB.     And 
lastly  we  observe  that  Dr.  Max  Cornu  prefers  P.  gangliiformis.^^ 
We  have  recently  seen  it  suggested  that  a  society  should  be  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  back  Cleopatra's   Needle   and   other 
Egyptian  and  Grecian  antiquities  now  in  Europe,  to  Egypt  and 
Greece.     Perhaps  the  time  may  some  day  arrive  when  a  society 
will  be  formed  for  the  reconstitution  of  old  generic  names  and  the 
obliteration  of  many  worthless  new  ones.     Botrytis  is  a  far  better 
name  than  Peronospora,  for  the  former  means  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
and  refers  to  the  appearance  of  the  fungi  as  they  hang  down  from 
the  under-surface  of  leaves  very  much  in  the  style  of  bunches  of 
grapes.       Ganglioniformis  refers   to   the   fruiting-threads   of   the 
fungus,  resembling  the  natural  enlaigements,  termed  ganglions,  in 
the  course  of  a  nerve.     Berkeley  pointed  out  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  in   1846,  that 
lettuces  were  at  that  time  subject  to  a  putrefactive  disease,  caused 
by  a  fungus  closely  allied  to  the  fungus  of  the  potato  disease,  and 
named  by  him  Bot.  ganglioniformis.     He  described  the  fungus  as 
common  in  the  spring ;  but  it  appears  that  there  are  two  crops  of 
this  fungus  every  year,  and  that  the  most  virulent  is  generally  in 
September   or   October.     The   invasion   of  lettuces   in    the   late 
autumn  is  often  so  destructive  that  it  entirely  destroys  the  harvest 
of  lettuce  seeds. 

The  ganglion-like  swellings  of  the  branches  are  a  pecuHar  fea- 
ture of  this  fungus.  The  end  of  each  fine  ultimate  branch  is  most 
beautifully  dilated  into  a  saucer-like  expansion,  with  a  single  exces- 
sively-attenuated spicule  growing  from  the  centre  of  each  saucer, 
and  from  three  to  five  spicules  round  its  margin.     Each  spicule  is 


ON  THE  PERONOSPORiE.  199 

slightly  dilated  at  the  tip,  and  on  each  tip  a  comparatively  large 
globose  spore  is  balanced.  The  mycelium  within  the  leaf  is  fur- 
nished with  minute  suckers,  with  which  the  fungus  pierces  the  cells 
and  supports  its  life.  The  mycelial  threads  are  too  large  to  get 
through  the  minute  stomata  of  the  leaf.  To  meet  this  difficulty, 
the  threads  inside  the  leaf,  as  they  approach  the  stomata,  twist 
round  once  like  a  corkscrew,  flatten  themselves,  and  push  through 
the  stomata  with  a  chisel  edge.  As  soon  as  this  chisel  edge  is 
pushed  into  the  air,  a  septum  appears,  and  from  this  septum  one, 
two,  or  three  fruiting-threads  arise. 

Happily,  the  Lettuce  Peronospora  is  not  everywhere  in  Britain. 
It  is  recorded  as  growing  on  sow-thistles  in  Scotland.  Some 
market-gardeners  have  never  seen  it ;  others  know  its  spring  and 
autumn  visitations  too  well.  It  causes  large  pallid  patches  to 
appear  on  the  leaves,  and  on  the  outside  of  these  patches,  little 
white  nodules  of  the  destructive  mould  may  be  seen.  In  the 
spring  the  pest  begins  on  the  outside  leaves,  and  proceeds  inwards, 
carrying  putrefaction  in  its  course.  In  bad  cases,  summer  lettuces 
are  quickly  reduced  to  lumps  of  wet  putridity.  This  fungus  grows 
on  other  Composite  plants^,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  such  as 
endive,  groundsel,  nipplewort,  and  sow-thistles.  Weeds  nurse  the 
fungus  for  the  lettuces,  and  as  P.  ganglioniformis  is  known  to  pro- 
duce resting-spores,  it  is  desirable  that  all  decaying  lettuce  mate- 
rial, as  well  as  the  decaying  weeds  above  mentioned,  should  when 
possible  be  gathered  and  burnt. 

P.  Parasitica.     Cabbage  Peronospora. 

Threads  of  the  mycelium  thickened  and  much  branched ; 
suckers  numerous  and  branched ;  branches  clavate,  obtuse ;  fer- 
tile threads  thick,  soft,  flexile,  equal  or  unequal ;  five  to  eight  times 
dichotomous,  rarely  trichotomous,  branches  always  repeatedly  tri- 
furcate;  acrospores  broadly  elliptical,  very  obtuse  at  the  apex, 
white.  This  fungus  invades  cabbages,  turnips,  and  other  crucifer- 
ous plants,  as  shepherd's  purse.  Cauliflowers  are  sometimes  at- 
tacked by  this  fungus.  Yellow  spots  appear  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  lower  leaves,  which,  when  examined  on  the  lower  surface, 
are  found  glaucous  with  the  mould,  which  usually  soon  destroys 
the  whole  plant.  In  turnips  the  leaves  seem  to  be  first  attacked  ; 
then  the  root  itself  becomes  covered  with  waved,  irregular  lines^ 


200  ON  THE  PEKONOSPOR^. 

following  the  course  of  the  vessels,  around  which  spots  are  formed 
by  the  deposition  of  dark  granules,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
potato.  In  the  resulting  rotten  condition  of  the  turnip,  numerous 
resting-spores  may  often  be  found.  These  resting-spores  were 
first  observed  by  Mr.  Broome,  of  Batheaston,  who  sent  them  to 
Dr.  Montague,  who  made  a  drawing  of  them. 

P.  ViTicoLA.     The  Grape  Peronospora. 

This  fungus  has  not  been  observed  in  Britain,  but  as  it  is  well- 
known  in  America  and  latterly  in  France,  a  description  is  here 
given.  The  mycelium  is  narrow,  often  constricted  and  varicose, 
no  suckers ;  conidia  threads  stipitate,  emerging  in  bundles  from 
the  stomata,  often  dichotomous,  and  branches  trifurcate.  Aero, 
spores  small,  ovoid,  and  hyaline  ;  oospores  small  and  hyaline.  In 
1880,  early  in  October,  the  vines  in  some  of  the  French  vineyards 
presented  a  very  unusual  appearance.  They  were  covered  with 
dry,  brown,  shrivelled  leaves,  as  if  they  had  been  burnt  by  the  sun 
or  frost-bitten,  and  at  the  extremity  of  the  branches  a  few  small, 
new  leaves  were  visible,  showing  a  very  backward  condition  of 
growth.  In  places  where  the  leaves  were  less  diseased,  dry 
brown  spots  were  visible,  which  spread  at  the  expense  of  the 
living  tissue,  ran  together,  and  covered  the  whole  leaf.  When 
these  prematurely-dried  leaves  were  examined,  the  underside  was 
seen  to  be  covered  with  the  white  efflorescence  of  a  mould,  which 
by-and-bye  changed  to  a  dull,  leaden  colour,  slightly  ruddy,  and 
proved  to  be  I*,  viticola. 

The  disease  had  long  been  known  in  America,  and  as  long  ago 
as  1877  Max  Cornu  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  American  stocks  into  French  vineyards  might  introduce  a 
disease  very  much  to  be  dreaded.  In  1878  it  was  recognised  on 
an  American  vine  stock,  in  the  south-west  of  France ;  in  1879  it 
had  reached  the  Rhone  valley;  and  in  1880  it  was  found,  as 
above  mentioned,  at  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  culture  of 
vines  in  France,  so  that  it  had  undoubtedly  spread  all  over  the 
country.  The  question  then  arose  as  to  how  far  this  new  enemy  was 
to  be  dreaded.  According  to  American  experience,  the  damage 
occasioned  by  it  is  quite  different,  according  to  climate.  In  Mis- 
souri the  mildew  sometimes  destroys  two-thirds  of  the  crop,  but  in 
that  hot  climate  the  fungus  makes  its  appearance  between  the  ist 


ON  THE  PERONOSPORiE.  201 

and  15th  of  June.  In  Massachusetts,  on  the  contrary,  it  does  not 
show  itself  except  in  the  autumn,  and  causes  scarcely  any  hurt  to 
the  vines.  The  following  is  Prof.  Farlow's  account  of  it : — "  It 
might  naturally  be  supposed  that  a  fungus  so  common  as  P.  viti- 
cola^  and  so  often  found  on  all  the  leaves  of  the  vine,  must  have 
very  disastrous  effects  on  the  crop.  This  is,  however,  not  the 
case.  The  fungus  does  not  attack  the  grapes  themselves.  Be- 
sides, at  least  in  New  England,  it  does  not  make  its  appearance 
before  August  ist,  and  the  leaves  do  not  look  brown  until  the 
month  of  September.  As  regards  the  culture  of  vines  in  the 
open  air  in  the  northern  states,  we  are  disposed  to  think  there  is 
little  to  fear  from  the  Peronospora,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  this 
fungus  may  be  even  beneficial.  Our  indigenous  vines  are  very 
luxuriant,  and  possess  an  abundance  of  leaves.  That  which  is 
most  to  be  feared  is,  that  in  our  short  summers  the  grapes  will  not 
be  sufficiently  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  Peronospora  arrives,  we 
think,  at  a  time  when  the  vines  have  attained  their  full  growth,  and 
when  the  important  point  is,  that  the  grapes  covered  by  the  leaves 
should  ripen.  In  drying  up  the  leaves,  the  Perojiospora  allows  the 
sun's  rays  to  reach  the  grapes,  and  it  does  not  seem  to  injure  the 
vines,  which  appear  to  grow  on  as  usual.''  It  is  hoped  that  it  may 
be  the  same  in  Europe. 

P.  ScHLEiDENiANA.     Onion  Peronospora. 

Fertile  threads  robust,  erect,  not  septate,  branched  alternately ; 
ultimate  ramuli  forked ;  acrospores  seated  on  tips  of  ultimate 
ramuli,  obovoid  or  nearly  pear-shaped,  attenuated  at  the  base, 
membrane  of  a  dirty  violet  colour.  The  individual  threads  are 
distinct,  but  form  large  patches  on  the  leaves,  or  even  entirely 
cover  them.  This  fungus  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  peculiar 
shape  of  the  acrospores.  It  is  not  confined  to  the  onion,  but 
appears  also  on  other  allied  species  of  Allium.  It  is  very  common 
and  destructive  some  years,  preventing  the  plants  which  are 
attacked  from  coming  to  perfection.  It  was  described  in  the 
Gardener's  Chroiiicle  for  1850  as  causing  great  destruction  amongst 
the  onions  in  Bath  and  the  neighbourhood  during  that  year. 
Berkeley  described  this  fungus  in  the  Annals  of  Natural  History 
under  the  name  of  Botrytis  destructor. 


202  'ON   THE   PERONOSPOR^. 

P.  ViCE^.     Pea  Peronospora. 

Fertile  threads  densely  coespitose,  erect,  equal,  six  to  eight 
times  dichotomous ;  ultimate  rumuli  shortly  subulate,  acute ;  acro- 
spores  ellipsoid,  very  obtuse  at  apex ;  membrane  violaceous.  The 
under-surface  of  the  leaves  of  peas  and  also  of  tares  is  liable  to 
attack  from  this  fungus,  and  in  1846  it  appeared  amongst  vetches 
in  some  districts  to  such  an  extent  as  at  one  time  to  threaten  the 
destruction  of  the  crops  ;  but  a  succession  of  dry  weather  at  once 
abridged  its  power  and  limited  its  mischief  Mouldy  vetches  and 
mouldy  peas,  evils  well  known  to  the  agriculturist  in  damp  seasons? 
are  due  to  this  fungus. 

P.  Trifolium.  Described  by  De  Bary,  attacks  trefoil  and 
allied  plants,  and  was  found  by  Cooke  plentifully  on  lucerne  in 
some  localities. 

P.  NivEA.     Parsnip  Peronospora. 

,  Threads  of  mycelium  stout,  often  torulose  ;  suckers  numerous, 
vesicular,  obovate ;  fertile  threads  fasciculate,  dwarfish,  tapering, 
or  subulate,  or  once  or  twice  shortly  bifurcate,  rarely  trifurcate, 
with  one  to  four  horizontal  branches  near  the  summit ;  once,  twice, 
or  three  times  bifurcate  ;  acrospores  subglobose  or  ovoid,  with  an 
obtuse  papilla  at  the  apex. 

The  plants  infested  with  this  parasite  are  first  attacked  in  the 
leaves,  but  afterwards  the  roots  become  spotted  and  diseased,  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  potato  tubers  attacked  by  the  potato  fungus. 
It  is  found  on  many  umbelliferous  plants ;  hence  the  name  given 
to  it  by  De  Bary  of  P.  iimhdliferariim.  Its  attacks  on  the  pars- 
nips are,  however,  most  to  be  deplored,  from  an  economic  point  of 
view. 

P.  Effusa.     Spinach  Peronospora. 

Fertile  threads  fasciculate,  short,  thick,  two  to  six  times  dicho- 
tomous above  \  acrospores  broadly  ellipsoid,  membrane  with  a 
violaceous  tint.  Oogonia  irregular  and  variable  in  size.  This 
fungus  affects  the  under-surface  of  the  leaves  of  spinach,  goose- 
foot,  knot-grass,  etc.  It  forms  effused  spots  two  to  six  lines  broad, 
generally  rendering  the  leaf  yellow.  Beds  of  spinach  are  some- 
times utterly  destroyed  by  this  fungus.  It  was  figured  by  Sowerby 
in  his  British  Fungi  some  fifty  years  ago. 


ON  THE  PERONOSPOR^.  208 

Besides  being  so  destructive  to  plants  used  as  food,  this  fungus 
causes  equal  havoc  amongst  flowers  of  certain  descriptions.  Thus, 
in  the  Gardener's  Chronicle  for  1862,  Berkeley  describes  the  effect 
of  P.  sparsa  on  roses  in  the  following  way : — '*  A  quantity  of 
potted  rose-plants  in  a  cool  house  suddenly  began  to  fail,  and  in 
a  short  time  every  plant  died.  Irregular  pale  brownish  spots  ap- 
peared on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  which  soon  withered 
and  shrivelled  up,  and  ultimately  the  whole  plant  was  sacrificed. 
The  zoospores  were  observed  moving  about  with  great  rapidity  by 
means  of  lash-like  threads."  And  again,  in  April,  1863,  he  des- 
cribes the  fungus  as  attacking  between  3,000  and  4,000  roses  in 
one  garden.  As  the  fungus  burrows  amongst  the  tissues  of  the 
leaves,  it  cannot  be  destroyed  except  by  destroying  the  leaf. 

The  red  corn-poppy  is  attacked  by  P.  arborescens^  the  wood 
anemone  by  P.  pygmcea,  the  veronica  by  P.  grisea,  the  sandwort 
by  P.  arenaricB,  the  ranunculus  by  P.  ficaricB^  the  Rhinanthus  by 
P.  dejisa,  the  lamium  by  P.  lamii^  and  so  forth. 

There  are  now  about  forty-five  described  species  of  Peronospora^ 
and  when  we  consider  that  each  of  these  probably  possesses  the  triple 
mode  of  reproduction  already  described,  the  conclusion  is  irresis- 
tibly forced  upon  us,  that  this  genus  of  fungus  is  almost  unparallelled 
in  the  amount  of  damage  it  is  capable  of  inflicting  on  the  vege- 
table kingdom. 

P.  Infestans,  Potato  Peronospora. 

Threads  of  mycelium  slender,  always  destitute  of  suckers  ; 
pestile  threads  thin,  gradually  attenuated  upwards,  with  one  to  five 
branches,  one  or  more  inflated  vesicles  near  the  apices  of  the 
branches ;  branches  either  simple  or  with  short  branchlets ; 
acrospores  ellipsoid  or  ovoid ;  apex  furnished  with  a  prominent 
papilla. — (Cooke). 

Besides  producing  the  well-known  Potato  disease,  this  species 
also  attacks  the  Tomato,  the  leaves  of  which  become  greatly 
spotted,  the  stems  partially  blackened,  and  in  some  cases  the 
young  green  fruit  is  rotted,  the  fungus  penetrating  the  rind  of  the 
fruit  direct  from  the  outside.  The  Gardenet^s  Chronicle  contains 
the  record  of  a  serious  outbreak  of  this  disease  amongst  the 
Tomatoes  at  Bath,  in  the  year  1852. 


204  ON  THE  PERONOSPORiE. 

We  now  have  to  examine  the  next  important  member  of  the 
genus — the  Peronospora  infestans — or  Potato  fungus  proper,  there 
being  really  more  than  half  a  dozen  fungi  which  affect  the  Potato ; 
but  none  of  them  equal  to  this  one  in  importance.  The  Potato 
fungus  was  not  included  in  the  collections  of  De  Candolle  or 
Sowerby.  The  first  pubHshed  description  of  the  fungus  was  by 
Dr.  Montague,  which  appeared  in  IJ Institute  for  September,  1845. 
In  November  of  the  same  year  Payen  published  an  account  in  A?ift. 
Soc.  Hort.  de  Paris,  and  Berkeley's  article  appeared  in  t\\Q.Journ. 
Hort.  Society.  In  December  of  the  same  year,  Morren  published 
an  account  of  the  fungus  in  the  A?in.  d^ Agriculture,  To  Berkeley, 
then,  in  this  country  at  least,  belongs  the  honour  of  having  first 
assigned  a  fungoid  origin  to  the  Potato  disease,  and  still  more 
honour  is  due  to  him  for  having  held  to  the  opinion  when  others 
wavered.  AVe  find  him  writing  regarding  the  fungoid  origin  of  the 
Potato  disease  in  the  Gardejier's  Chronicle  for  1846,  as  follows  : — 
*'We  come  now  to  the  theory  which  has  been  so  much  canvassed, 
and  which  is  now  peculiar  almost  to  Dr.  Warren.  Of  this  opinion, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition,  and  in  some  instances  the  ridicule, 
almost,  with  which  it  has  been  assailed,  I  must  profess  myself  at 
present."  He  goes  on  to  say  that  the  decay  is  the  consequence 
of  the  presence  of  the  mould,  which  feeds  upon  the  juices,  and 
prevents  the  elaboration  of  nutritive  sap  in  the  leaves. 

The  first  onset  of  the  disease  in  this  country  was  alarming 
enough.  Appearing  first  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  the  autumn  of 
1845,  ^t  rapidly  spread  through  the  South  of  England.  Early  in 
September  it  appeared  in  Ireland,  and  shortly  afterwards  in 
Scotland. 

Berkeley's  still  classical  description  may  be  read  in  the  Joiirn. 
Hort.  Soc,  or  in  a  more  accessible  book — "  Cooke's  Microscopic 
Fungi."  Berkeley  clearly  established  that  the  disease  was  due  to 
a  fungus,  which  penetrated  by  means  of  its  fine  mycelium  the 
tissues  of  the  plant,  eventually  reaching  the  tubers  and  involving 
the  whole  in  a  common  destruction.  It  protruded  branches 
through  the  stomata,  which  bore  two  kinds  of  spores,  one  of 
which  set  free  a  number  of  locomotive  bodies,  capable  of  pro- 
pelling themselves  through  the  water  by  whip-lash-like  filaments. 
Berkeley  observed  these  bodies,  but  did  not  detect  their  cilia, 


ON   THE  PERONOSPOK^.  205 

which  were  first  pointed  out  by  De  Bary,  in  1868.  At  this  point 
the  knowledge  of  the  Hfe-history  of  the  Potato  disease  stood 
stationary  for  many  years.  Other  Peronosporse  had  been  found  to 
possess  another  mode  of  reproduction,  viz.,  a  sexual  one,  the 
product  of  which  was  a  spore  possessing  greater  powers  of 
remaining  in  a  dormant,  or  resting  state,  than  the  other  kind  of 
spores.  No  such  resting  spores  had  been  found  in  P.  ififestafis, 
although  Montague  had  met  with  some  bodies  which  he  described 
under  the  name  of  Artofrogiis,  and  which  had  been  suggested  by 
some  botanists,  including  Berkeley,  as  likely  to  be  the  missing 
organs. 

In  1873,  owing  to  the  widespread  ravages  of  the  fungus,  the 
Council  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  through  the  kindness  of 
Lord  Cathcart,  offered  a  prize  of  ;£^ioo  for  the  best  essay  on  the 
Potato  disease,  but  although  ninety-four  essays  were  sent  in,  not  one 
was  deemed  worthy  of  the  prize.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that 
the  leading  mycologists  in  this  country  held  aloof  from  this  form 
of  competition.  The  next  step  was  one  which  elicited  a  great 
deal  of  ridicule  at  the  time,  and  met  with  an  equal  want  of 
success,  for  the  ;£^ioo  prize  was  now  offered  for  potatoes  which 
would  be  disease  proof.  In  the  next  year  the  Council  changed 
their  tactics,  and  recommended  that  a  grant  of  ;£ioo  should  be 
made  to  some  competent  mycologist  to  investigate  the  life-history 
of  the  fungus.  In  selecting  De  Bary  of  Strasburg  for  this 
distinction,  a  grave  slight  was  put  upon  the  English  mycologists, 
for  although  De  Bary  was  well  known  for  his  painstaking  investi- 
gations, such  men  as  Berkeley,  Cooke,  and  Broome,  especially 
Berkeley,  had  an  European  reputation  for  mycological  research. 

In  July,  1875,  Worthington  Smith,  who  had  been  devoting 
much  attention  to  the  Potato  disease,  announced  that  he  believed 
he  had  discovered  the  missing  link  in  the  life-history  of  the 
fungus,  viz.,  the  resting  spore.  Whilst  keeping  diseased  leaves, 
stems,  and  tubers  of  Potatoes  in  a  state  of  continual  moisture 
under  glass,  till  they  were  in  a  thoroughly  decomposed  condition, 
he  observed  certain  bodies  which  he  considered  must  be  the 
antheridia  and  oogonia  of  the  fungus,  and  after  a  little  time  he 
found  certain  dark  coloured,  warty  bodies^  which  he  thought  must 
be  the  perfected  resting  spores.     Comparing  these  with  the  bodies 


206  '  ON  THE  PERONOSPOR^. 

described  as  Artotrogiis^  found  by  Montague  in  spent  potatoes,  he 
considered  the  two  to  be  identical. 

Early  in  1876  De  Bary's  investigations  were  made  known. 
He  also  found  certain  bodies  like  oospores  in  decayed  Potato 
tubers,  but  considered  them  as  belonging  to  the  genus  Pythium^ 
especially  as  he  w^as  able  to  grow  fresh  crops  of  mycelium  from 
them  on  the  legs  of  dead  flies,  bodies  of  mites,  etc.  He  called 
the  species  P.  vexans,  in  consideration  of  the  trouble  it  had  given 
him,  and  thought  that  the  Artotrogus  of  Montague  belonged  to  a 
still  undetermined  fungus.  He  considered  that  the  perennial 
mycelium  of  the  Potato  disease  occasionally  discharged  the 
function  of  hibernation,  when  the  oospores  were  not  found.  In 
this  case  the  spawn  of  the  Potato  fungus  would  live  through  the 
winter  in  the  tubers  of  the  Potato,  and  be  propagated  in  the  spring 
by  means  of  diseased  tubers,  and  of  tubers  healthy  at  time  of 
planting,  but  destined  soon  to  become  diseased  from  others.  He 
thinks  there  are  two  methods  by  which  the  conidia  may  pass  from 
the  tuber  to  the  haulm,  i. — The  conidia  may  be  formed  in  the 
tuber,  and  carried  up  to  the  foliage  in  course  of  growth.  2. — The 
mycelium  may  grow  from  the  tubers  up  through  the  haulm  and 
foliage,  and  there  produce  conidia.  De  Bary  seemed  to  think 
that  the  fungus  found  some  resting  place  external  to,  and  indepen- 
dent of  the  Potato  plant,  an  arrangement  by  no  means  uncommon 
amongst  fungi.  He  suggested  the  Nat.  Ord.  Scrophulaciace^ 
as  the  place  where  the  resting  spores  might  be  found,  an  idea 
derived  from  English  botanists.  The  Secretary  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  had  suggested  also  that  Clover  or  Straw  might 
be  the  host  in  question. 

In  July,  1876,  Worthington  Smith  pubHshed  a  further  series  of 
observations.  He  had,  with  untiring  energy,  kept  alive  and 
constantly  under  observation,  the  bodies  he  discovered  in  July, 
1875.  The  only  change  he  noticed  for  a  long  time  was  that  they 
increased  in  size,  till  they  became  nearly  four  times  their  original 
bulk,  but  at  the  beginning  of  May  he  began  to  see  signs  of 
germination.  At  this  time  many  of  the  oospores  proved  effete, 
but  in  some  the  contents  were  broken  up  into  zoospores,  which 
were  discharged  in  an  active  condition,  and  after  swarming 
became  quiescent,  and  emitted  filaments  of  mycelium.     In  some 


ON  THE  PERONOSPOR^,  207 

cases  the  oospores,  instead  of  producing  zoospores,  produced  a 
thick  jointed  thread,  resembUng  the  threads  of  P.  infestans^  and  in 
both  cases  the  myceHum  produced  conidiophores  and  small 
conidia,  which  were  believed  to  be  those  of  P.  ijifestans. 

De  Bary  had  remarked  that  supposing  the  warty  bodies  seen 
by  Worthington  Smith  were  the  resting  spores^  they  could  not  play 
an  important  part  in  the  life-history  of  the  plant  on  account  of 
their  extraordinary  rarity.  Worthington  Smith  now  points  out  that 
in  his  first  experiments  the  resting  spores  were  certainly  rare,  but  that 
afterwards  they  were  produced  in  myriads,  and  that  within  the 
tissues  of  a  comparatively  few  leaves.  De  Bary  had  also  further 
objected  that  the  fungus  he  had  called  Pythiimi  vexans  would 
grow  freely  on  the  bodies  of  mites,  etc.,  and  that  Peronospora 
would  not  do  so.  Smith  says  he  has  observed  the  Peronospora 
on  the  bodies  of  aphides — not  only  the  threads,  but  also  oogonia 
and  antheridia  in  conjugation.  Worthington  Smith's  experiments 
were  repeated  by  Messrs.  Broome,  Vize,  and  Plo^vright,  with 
generally  satisfactory  results  in  confirming  the  original  experiments. 
Mr.  Plowright  observed  resting-spores  enclosed  in  the  coils  of 
spiral  vessels. 

Curiously  enough,  a  drawing  of  the  Potato  fungus  was  made 
in  1845  by  G.  H.  O.  Stephens,  of  Bristol,  and  in  it  a  body  of  the 
exact  shape,  size,  and  colour  of  the  resting  spore  is  depicted.  He 
drew  what  he  saw  under  the  microscope,  but  did  not  know  its 
import.  A  copy  of  this  drawing  is  given  in  the  Gardener's 
Chronicle  for  1877.  In  1880,  Worthington  Smith  writes  as  to  the 
non-rarity  of  the  resting  spores  : — "  They  exist  in  uncountable 
numbers  in  nearly  every  old  exhausted  Potato  tuber  belonging  to 
infected  plants,  and  may  be  found  most  easily  in  any  infected 
Potato  field  in  this  country.  Also,  that  although  the  mycelium 
of  nearly  every  fungus  is  able  to  go  into  a  state  of  hibernation  at 
times,  according  to  his  experience  it  is  very  rarely  found  in  the 
Potato  disease.  Controversy,  however,  with  regard  to  the 
Potato  disease  seems  never  likely  to  come  to  an  end,  for  the 
battle  is  now  shifted  to  other  points." 

Berkeley  long  ago  wrote  as  to  the  concluding  stage  of  this 
disease  : — "  The  whole  soon  dries  up,  and  in  many  instances 
exhibits  in  the  centre  the  black,  irregular,  fungoid  masses  which 


208  ON  THE  PERONOSPOR^. 

are  known  under  the  name  of  Sderotium  vasium,  and  which  are 
believed  to  be  the  mycelium  of  certain  moulds  in  a  high  state  of 
condensation."  Worthington  Smith,  in  the  Gardener's  Chronicle 
for  1880,  described  and  illustrated  a  Sderotium  affecting  Potato 
stems,  which  he  thought  belonged  to  some  fungus  other  than 
Peronospora.  In  September,  1883,  Mr.  Stephen  Wilson 
announced  that  these  Sclerotia  belong  to  Peziza  postuma,  and 
that  he  has  grown  the  specimens  of  the  fungus,  which  he  figures, 
from  Sclerotia  kept  and  preserved  by  him.  He  queries  whether 
these  are  truly  parasitic,  or  whether  they  do  not  merely  follow  the 
decay  of  the  stalks  consequent  on  the  common  disease.  The 
same  gentleman,  in  the  previous  year,  had  made  a  communication 
to  the  Linnaean  Society  on  the  subject  of  certain  dark,  small, 
ovoid  bodies,  found  in  the  leaf  of  the  Potato,  and  which  he 
considered  to  be  parasitic  sclerotia  of  Peronospora  infestans.  He 
thought  that  they  were  amorphous  particles  of  glutinous  plasm, 
which  after  a  period  of  incubation  germinate  in  the  tissues  of  the 
plant,  and  account  for  the  appearance  of  disease  independently 
of  the  conidia.  Mr.  Murray  and  Dr.  Flight,  of  the  British 
Museum,  had,  however,  examined  them,  and  submitted  them  to 
chemical  analysis,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  were 
masses  of  oxalate  of  lime,  and  had  no  necessary  connection  with 
the  Potato  fungus. 

But  leaving  this  subject,  there  are  one  or  two  points  of  interest 
to  be  dealt  with.  First  of  all,  when  did  the  Peronospora  first 
make  its  appearance  ?  We  owe  to  Mr.  Carruthers,  of  the  British 
Museum,  a  fossil  slide,  which  has  been  described  by  Worthington 
Smith  as  probably  a  fossil  Perofiospora.  Silicified  mycelia  have 
been  known  for  a  long  time  occurring  in  fossil  wood  and  ferns, 
but  no  perfect  fruit  had  been  observed  on  any  fossil  mycelium. 
No  description,  except  that  of  a  Mucor  from  the  Coal  Measures, 
has  hitherto  been  published  of  any  well  defined  fungus  belonging 
to  the  Palaeozoic  series  of  rocks.  This  fungus  was  found  in  the 
scalariform  axis  of  a  stem  of  a  Lepidodejidron  from  the  Coal 
Measures.  The  mycelium  is  furnished  with  numerous  septa,  a 
characteristic  supposed  to  distinguish  Peronospora  from  Pythium 
or  Saprolegfiia,  and  the  oogonia  do  not  agree  with  those  of 
Cystoptis.     The  oogonia  and  zoospores  are  not  only  of  the  same 


ON  THE  PERONOSPORiE.  209 

character  as  those  of  Peronospora^  but  were,  when  measured,  to 
the  ten-thousandth  of  an  inch,  exactly  the  same  in  size  ;  the 
average  number  of  zoospores  in  each  oogonium  is  also  the  same. 
Smith  proposes  to  call  this  fungus  Pe7vnosporites  aiitiquarhis^  and 
says  we  have  probably  in  this  specimen  one  of  the  simple 
primordial  plants  of  the  great  family  of  fungi. 

The  Potato  murrain  was  not  heard  of  till  1843,  but  two  years 
later  it  had  become  general  in  Europe  and  America  ;  it  seems  as 
if  the  Potato  fungus  had  previously  attacked  some  other 
plant,  possibly  another  species  of  the  genus  Solanum,  but  had  at 
that  time  found  a  more  suitable  nidus  for  its  development  in  the 
moist  and  weakened  tissues  of  the  cultivated  Potato.  Professor 
Church  says  : — "  The  native  country  of  the  unimproved  Potato 
(Chili  and  Peru)  differs  so  greatly  as  to  rainfall  and  other  elements 
of  climate  and  season  from  Great  Britain,  that  it  is  not  wonderful 
to  find  the  plant  much  altered  in  character  by  its  long  cultivation 
here.  Naturally  the  plant  is  almost  Alpine  in  its  habits,  very 
aromatic,  and  less  watery  than  the  improved  varieties  which  it  has 
yielded  in  Europe  )  and  the  changes  which  have  been  wrought  in 
its  nature  have  rendered  it  more  amenable  to  the  attacks  of  fungi." 
The  Potato,  like  all  other  living  things,  has  a  peculiar  vitality  or 
vital  force,  by  means  of  which,  if  unimpaired,  it  is  capable  of 
resisting  disease  and  of  braving  the  attacks  of  parasites.  But  if 
the  vitality  decreases,  then  the  Potato  becomes  liable  to  disease 
and  to  suffer  from  parasites.  This  reduction  of  vital  force  does 
not  take  place  suddenly,  but  comes  on  slowly,  after  years  of 
artificial  cultivation.  The  vital  force  having  been  thus  lowered,  if 
an  unusually  unfavourable  season  occurs,  the  Potato  has  not 
enough  constitutional  energy  to  resist  disease. 

When  once  disease  has  been  experienced,  the  vitality  of  the 
plant  is  still  more  lowered,  and  will  continue  to  be  so.  As  the 
disease  is  known  in  the  native  country  of  the  Potato,  it  has  been 
suggested  by  Mr.  Worthington  Smith,  and  others,  that  the  resting 
spore  may  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  guano  brought 
from  Peru  and  the  Chincha  Islands.  It  has  also  been  suggested 
that  the  old  disease,  called  the  Curl,  amongst  Potatoes,  is  identical 
with  the  fungus  disease  ;  if  so,  the  Peronospora  would  have  been 
present  in  Europe  many  years  longer  than  is  supposed  at  present. 


210  ON  THE   PERONOSPOR^. 

Experience  of  the  operations  of  the  disease  in  past  years  has 
generally  shown  that  when  one  section  of  the  Potato  crop  is 
hardly  hit,  another  as  often  escapes  almost  altogether.  In  average 
seasons  the  disease  has  made  its  deadly  effects  most  felt  amongst 
the  mid-season  kinds,  whilst  early  and  late  ones  have  suffered  less. 
At  other  times  the  fungus  has  made  an  early  appearance,  and  has 
spared  the  later  kinds,  thus  maintaining  a  sort  of  equilibrium,  so 
that  an  entire  loss  of  crop  has  not  often  resulted.  In  noticing 
this  somewhat  curious  feature  in  the  disease,  we  are  brought  face 
to  face  with  what  is  an  undoubted  problem  in  connection  with  its 
operations,  viz. — that  the  fungus  seldom  attacks  any  kind  until  it 
has  attained  to  a  certain  stage  of  maturity.  Whilst  matured  kinds 
may  be  almost  destroyed  by  the  fungus,  the  foliage  of  later  sorts, 
growing  side  by  side  with  them,  are  untouched.  There  is,  further, 
the  interesting  fact  that  the  worst  phase  of  the  disease  attack  is 
generally  condensed  within  a  few  weeks'  space,  from  which  it  may 
be  assumed  that  the  active  germs  of  the  fungus  are  operative  only 
during  a  certain  period  of  time,  the  weather  being  probably  the 
guiding  instrument  as  to  the  fixing  of  this  particular  period.  A 
few  days  of  cold  rain,  with  low  temperature,  or  a  period  of 
excessively  hot  sunny  days,  accompanied  by  heavy  dews  and  white 
mists  at  night,  with  occasional  thunderstorms,  may  prove  most 
disastrous,  broad  breadths  of  luxuriant  Potato  foliage  being 
reduced  in  a  few  days  to  a  blackened  and  putrid  mass. 

In  conclusion,  I  give  the  following  practical  suggestions  which 
were  drawn  up  some  time  ago  for  a  Hereford  x\gricultural  Society : — 
I. — Burn  the  haulm,  and  all  waste  Potatoes,  etc.  Do  not  throw 
them  on  the  manure  heap,  because  the  mildew  seeds  will  gain  in 
strength  by  resting  in  the  manure,  and  this  manure  will  help  to 
spread  the  Potato  disease  next  season.  2. — Boil  for  a  long  time 
all  diseased  Potatoes  before  feeding  animals  with  them.  It  is 
highly  probable  that  the  mildew  seeds  gain  strength  by  passing 
through  the  stomach  of  an  animal,  and  the  manure  of  animals 
would  thus  become  a  powerful  means  of  spreading  the  disease. 
3. — Do  not  grow  Potatoes  on  the  same  piece  of  land  two  years  in 
succession.  Any  mildew  seeds  (resting  spores)  which  may  rest  in 
the  ground  from  last  year's  crop  will  begin  to  grow  about  the 
middle   of   May,   but  will  probably  perish   if  they  cannot  find 


ON   THE  PERONOSPORiE. 


211 


Potato  plants  as  hosts  to  nurse  them.  4.— Be  sure  the  seed 
Potatoes  are  free  from  disease  when  planted,  as  a  few  diseased 
plants  will  infect  acres  of  Potatoes  in  a  wet,  warm  season.  5.— 
Chemical  manures  are  preferable  to  other  manures,  being  less 
likely  to  contain  mildew  seeds.  6. — Potato  crops  may  sometimes 
be  saved  by  pulling  up  the  haulm  directly  the  disease  spots  appear 
on  the  leaves  of  any  one  plant. 

Want  of  space  has  prevented  more  than  just  alluding  here 
to  the  interesting  experiments  of  Mr.   Murray,  who,  by  placing 
glass   slips  covered  with  glycerine  on  the  lee   side  of  a  field  of 
diseased    potatoes,    obtained    numerous   spores   of    Peronospora 
Infesfa?is,  demonstrated  the  important  part  the  atmosphere  has  in 
distributing  the  summer  seeds  of  the  disease.     When  scientific 
witnesses  speak  of  millions  of  spores  being  found  in  each  diseased 
plant,  which  may  thus  be  wafted  about  in  the  air  ;  and  when  they 
are  of  opinion  that  even  birds  and  ground  game  may  be  the  means 
of  carrying  the  infection  from  one  place  to  another,  we  see  the 
impossibility  of  ever  being  able  to  root  out  the  disease.     Atten- 
tion to  the  details  of  scientific  cultivation,  the  choice  of  new  and 
strong  varieties  of  tubers  for  seed,  and  the  gradual  restoration  of  a 
stronger  constitution  to  the  Potato  by  this  means,  is  the  direction 
in  which  we  must  look  for  future  success. 


EXPLANATION     OF     PLATES    XX.,    XXL,    XXH.^ 

XXIII. ,   XXIY. 


PLATE    XX. — Peronospora  infest ans. 

Fig.  1. — ( X  150)  Mycelium  and  branched  conidiophore,  taken  from  the 
surface  of  a  slice  of  diseased  Potato  which  had  been  exposed 
to  damp  air.     c,  Toung  conidia. 

2. — (x  390)  Fragment  of  a  branched  conidiophore,  like  the  pre- 
ceding, but  older,  having  produced  conidia,  and  showing 
numerous  partitions. 

3.  — (  X  390)  Pipe  conidia. 

4. — (x  390)  Conidia  putting  out  germ  tubes. 

5. — (x  390)  Thin  fragment  taken  by  a  vertical  cutting  from  a 
slice  of  Potato,  the  surface  {s.s.)  of  which  has  been  sown  with 
spores  of  P.  infestans.  Two  germs  have  perforated  the 
partitions  of  the  superficial  cells  of  the  slice  ;  one  has  entered 
tlie  intercellular  meatus  of  the  subjacent  parenchyma,  the 
other  has  not  yet  quitted  the  cavity  of  the  superficial  cell. 


5) 


55 

5) 


212  ON  THE  PERONOSPOR^. 

PLATE  XXI. — Peronospora  infestans  (x    390). 
Fig.  l.-^Oonidia-zoosporangia  sown  in  water.     Protoplasm  divided, 
2. — Zoospore,  free  and  active. 

3. — Zoospores  at  rest  and  commencing  to  germinate. 
4. — Zoospores,  with  long  germs. 

5. — Epidermis  from  a  stem  of  Solanum  tuberosum^  in  which  three 
zoospores  of  the  parasite  have  thrust  out  germs  whilst 
perforating  the  walls.  The  parts  of  the  germs  outside  the 
epidermis  are  empty,  the  penetrating  extremity  having 
received  all  the  protoplasm.  About  eighteen  hours  after 
sowing  the  spores. 

6  and  7. — Fragments  of  horizontal  cuttings  of  the  epidermis  and 
cortical  tissue  of  S.  tuberosum.  The  germs  have  penetrated 
the  epidermic  cellules  ;  they  are  branched,  and  that  which  is 
represented  in  Fig.  7  is  beginning  to  perforate  the  interior 
wall  of  the  cellule  which  encloses  it.  About  seventeen  hours 
after  sowing  the  spores. 

8. — Vertical  cutting  of  the  same  stem  which  has  supplied  Figs.  6 
and  7,  made  twenty-four  hours  later,  showing  progress  of  the 
germ  through  a  large  cellule  into  the  lengthened  cellules  of 
the  cortical  collenchyma  (c.c). 

9  and  10. — Vertical  cuttings  of  leaf  of  ;S'.  tuberosum,  five  days 
after  sowing  the  spores,  e.s.,  Epidermis  of  upper  surface. 
ex.,  Epidermis  of  lower  surface.  The  filaments  of  the 
mycelium  grow  between  the  cellules  of  the  parenchyma, 
which  still  appear  healthy.  In  Fig.  10  a  conidiophore  is 
emitted  from  a  stomata  (5). 


J) 


PLATE  XXII. 

Figs.  1 — 4,    Peronospora  parasitica  (x  390). 

Fig.  1. — Fragment  of  vertical  section  of  pith  of  Capsella  Bursa- 
pastoris.  A  tube  of  intercellular  mycelium  thrusts  a  large 
dichotomous  sucker  into  one  of  the  cellules.  The  mycelium 
carries  an  oogonium  nearly  ripe. 

2  and  3. — Advanced  stages  of  ripened  oogonium,    a.,  antheridium. 

4.  —  Germinating  conidium. 


5) 
5) 


Figs.  5—8,  Peronospora  ganglioniformis. 

5. — Pipe  conidia. 

6.— Germinating  conidia. 

7  and  8. — Epidermis  from  leaf  of  Lactuca  sativa,  conidia  of  par- 
asite having  been  sown  in  it  three  days  previously.  The 
membranes  of  the  conidia  are  empty,  and  folded  above  the 
epidermis ;  the  germs  swollen  with  protoplasm  penetrating 
the  cellules. 


5) 


ON  THE    PERONOSPORiE.  213 

PLATE  XXIII. — Pekonospora  nivea  (UmbelUferarum) . 

Fig.  1. — Ripe  conidia. 

2  and  3. — Formation  of  zoospores. 

2 — a.  Protoplasm  divided,  conidia  swollen,  terminal  papilla  not 
seen  ;  h.  — Protoplasm  withdrawn  from  wall  of  cell. 

3 — a.  Sporangium  enclosing  fully  developed  zoospores  ;  h.  — Expul- 
sion of  zoospores. 

,,  4. — Zoospores  free  and  active. 

,,  5. — Germinating  zoospores. 

,,  6 — 11. — Fragment  of  epidermis  of  under  surface  of  leaf  of 
CEgopodium  podagrasia,  showing  germination  of  zoospores, 
and  penetration  of  the  germs  in  the  stomata.  Figs.  6 — 9. — 
Six  hours  after  sowing  the  spores.  Figs.  10  and  11. — 
Twenty-four  hours  after  sowing  the  spores. 

,,  6. — Zoospore  fixed  on  a  stomata. 

,,  7. — Zoospore,  with  germ  entering  stomata. 

,,  8. — Globular  swelling  of  the  germ  inside  the  stomata. 

,,  9. — Membrane  of  spore  outside  the  stoma  is  empty,  and  only 
attached  by  a  very  small  filament  to  the  germ,  which  is  drawn 
out  in  a  tube  towards  a  cellule  of  the  epidermis. 

,,  10. — Germs  which  have  entered  by  the  stomata,  thrusting  their 
extremities  into  the  epidermic  cellules,  and  there  developing 
suckers. 

11. — A  germ  like  the  two  preceding,  showing  the  empty  mem- 
brane of  the  spore  outside  the  stomata. 

12  and  13. — Slices  of  epidermis  of  lower  surface  of  leaf,  showing 
cut  stomata  by  which  germs  of  parasite  have  entered.  Fig. 
12  corresponds  to  Fig.  9,  Fig.  13  to  Figs.  10  and  11. 

14. — Fragment  of  thin  slice  of  leaf  of  CEgopodium,  with  a  tube 
of  mycelium  emitting  suckers  into  the  cellules  of  the 
epidermis. 

15. — Tube  of  isolated  mycelium  carrying  two  oogonia.  One  is  the 
sessile  attached  to  &,  and  nearly  ripe  ;  a  is  the  antheridium  ; 
the  other  is  perfectly  ripe. 


)5 


jj 


jj 


PLATE    XXIV. — Peronospora  alsinearum. 

Development   of  oogonia  and  antheridia,    x    400.     a.,  antheridium  ; 

0. ,  oogonium  ;  m. ,  mycelium. 
Fig.  1. — Mycelium  bearing  young  oogonium. 
,,  2. — Formation  of  antheridium. 

,,  3. — Oogonium  separated  by  a  partition  from  the  mycelium  tube. 
,,  4. — Fully  developed  antheridium. 

Q 


214  THE  ORGANISMS  IN  YEAST. 


Fig.    5. — Antlieridium  penetrating  oogonium  and  commencing  forma- 
tion of  gonosphere  {g). 

6. — Fecundation  of  gonosphere  by  antlieridium. 
7. — Formation  of  oospore. 

8. — Antlieridium,  the  fecundating  tube  of  which  has  been  isolated 
by  artificial  evacuation  of  the  oogonium. 

9. — Young  oospore  covered  by  the  reticulated  epispore. 

10. — Ripe  oospore,  with  thick  epispore. 

11. — Oospore,   with   epispore    detached,    and    with   remains    of 


3) 

3) 
3J 


3  3 
33 
33 


fecundating  tube. 


^be  ©roanieme  in  ll)ca9t 

By  Henry  C.  A.  Vine. 

A  Paper  read  to  the  Members  of  the  Bath  Microscopical  Society, 

May,   1884. 

Plate  25. 


THE  amount  of  material  at  disposal  renders  it  somewhat 
difficult  to  deal  with  the  subject  of  organised  ferments,  even 
within  the  limits  indicated  by  my  title,  in  a  manner  at  once 
succinct  and  comprehensive,  and  careful  consideration  has  been 
necessary  as  to  the  best  manner  in  which  it  could  be  placed  before 
our  readers.  The  chief  points  of  past  research,  the  outlines  of 
the  methods  which  have  been,  and  most  conveniently  may  be, 
employed  in  such  investigations,  and  finally  the  nature  and  classi- 
fication of  the  organisms  themselves,  all  in  turn  demand,  and 
must  receive,  a  share  of  attention. 

The  announcement  of  the  discovery  of  the  "  yeast  plant " — as  it 
was  called,  by  Schwann  and  Cagniard-Latour  some  fifty  years  since 
— caused  considerable  attention  to  be  directed  to  the  study  of 
ferment  life ;  but  the  theories  of  the  nature  of  the  fermentative 
and  putrefactive  changes,  elaborated  by  the  illustrious  Liebig,  led 
to  the  idea  that  the  organised  structures  observed  in  fermenting 
liquids  were  the  concomitants  rather  than  the  actual  agents  of  the 


Journal  of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3, PI.  25. 


Y&ousl,   do. 


THE   ORGANISMS   IN  YEAST.  215 

fermentative  changes ;  and,  as  was  remarked  by  Dr.  Charlton 
Bastian  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Pathological  Society  of  London, 
in  1875,  "it  was  not  until  twenty  years  afterwards  that  Pasteur  an- 
nounced, as  the  result  of  his  apparently  conclusive  researches,  that 
low  organisms  acted  as  the  invariable  causes  of  fermentation  and 
putrefaction,  and  that  such  changes,  though  in  fact  chemical  pro- 
cesses, were  only  capable  of  being  initiated  by  the  agency  of 
living  units."  Having  shown  thus  much,  M.  Pasteur  proceeded  to 
demonstrate  that,  not  only  were  the  living  cells  the  active  cause  of 
change,  but  that  the  nature  of  the  change  varied  according  to  the 
species  of  cell-life  employed ;  that  any  one  species  of  such  cell- 
life  was  not  capable  of  conversion  into  any  other  variety ;  and  that 
one  species  would  flourish  in  a  medium  in  which  another  could  not 
continue  to  live.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  investiga- 
tions were  carried  on  in  connection  with  the  industrial  processes  of 
brewing  and  wine-making,  and  that  therefore  the  results  obtained 
have  especial  bearing  upon  the  present  subject. 

It  was  necessary  at  the  commencement  to  obtain  supplies  of 
the  various  moulds  and  ferments  free  from  admixture  one  with  the 
other,  and  from  extraneous  cell-life,  which  might  interfere  seriously 
with  the  experiments,  and  for  this  purpose  a  plan  was  adopted 
which  serves  at  the  same  time  to  prove  the  universal  presence  of 
these  agents  of  change  in  the  atmosphere  and  elsewhere.  Liquids 
capable  of  sustaining  the  growth  of  such  ferments  as  it  was  desired 
to  study  were  placed  in  glass  flasks,  the  necks  of  which  were 
drawn  out  to  a  point  before  the  blow-pipe,  and  after  certain  means 
had  been  taken  to  destroy  whatever  vital  germs  they  might  con- 
tain, they  were  hermetically  sealed  and  put  by  for  long  periods,  in 
order  to  see  v/hether  their  contents  remained  unchanged.  When 
a  number  of  such  flasks  had  remained  a  considerable  time  without 
exhibiting  any  sign,  either  of  fermentation  or  of  life,  they  were 
taken  to  various  parts  of  the  building  wherein  the  laboratory  was 
situate — some,  even,  into  the  garden — when,  the  narrow  extremity 
of  the  neck  being  broken,  air  was  admitted.  The  flasks  were 
then  immediately  re-sealed,  and  were  restored  to  their  former 
position  upon  the  shelves  of  the  laboratory.  In  a  few  days  the 
presence  of  small  specks  of  mould  upon  the  surface  of  the  liquid 
within,  or  the  rising  of  big  bubbles  of  gas,  gave  evidence  that  with 


216  THE   ORGANISMS   IN   YEAST. 

the  air  some  germs  of  moulds  or  of  ferments  had  entered,  and  in 
the  majority  of  cases  it  was  found  that  the  organisms  developed  in 
each  flask  were  limited  to  one  particular  species,  the  amount  of  air 
admitted  not  seeming  sufficient  to  carry  with  it  any  great  number 
or  variety  of  organisms.  Where  this  was  the  case,  an  uncontami- 
nated  growth  of  mould  or  ferment  was  obtained,  and  formed  the 
material  for  a  series  of  successive  cultivations  in  supplies  of  germ- 
free,  nutrient  liquids,  conducted  with  proper  precautions  to 
secure  freedom  from  accidental  errors.  The  results  showed  that, 
although  the  moulds  and  mildews  were  capable,  under  some  cir- 
cumstances, of  acting  in  a  degree  as  alcoholic  ferments,  yet  each 
species  retained  its  individual  character,  instead  of  exhibiting  that 
polymorphism  which  had  previously  been  claimed  for  the  group. 
It  was  also  found  that,  in  each  instance,  the  nature  of  the  fermen- 
tation was  in  accord  with  the  description  of  the  cell-life  present, 
and  in  some  instances,  further,  that  the  various  nutrient  liquids 
were  by  no  means  equally  capable  of  supporting  the  life  of  all  the 
species  of  organisms  concerned  in  such  changes.  From  this  it 
became  clear  that  the  injurious  changes  in  materials  and  produce, 
from  which  various  industries  often  suffer,  might  reasonably  be 
ascribed  to  the  action  of  these  organisms  whose  universal  preva- 
lence would  go  far  to  account  for  the  mystery  hitherto  attaching  to 
such  changes.  Further  investigation  showed  that  such  actually 
was  the  case,  and  that  the  acetic,  the  lactic,  the  putrefactive,  and 
other  similar  fermentations  were,  like  the  alcoholic  fermentation, 
due  to  the  development  in  the  affected  medium  of  certain  special 
varieties  of  organism,  each  variety  producing  its  particular  effects. 
In  the  meantime,  these  conclusions  and  theories  received  great 
support  from  the  results  obtained  by  those  scientists  who  had  been 
endeavouring  to  apply  them  to  the  elucidation  of  the  history  of 
certain  diseases,  and  the  valuable  knowledge  obtained  in  this  field 
of  research  by  Pasteur,  Koch,  and  others  on  the  Continent  and  in 
this  country,  have,  while  rendering  great  service  to  humanity,  con- 
firmed in  a  remarkable  degree  the  reasonings  of  Pasteur  with  regard 
to  industrial  ferments.  The  same  branches  of  study  have  further- 
more been  pursued  from  another  and  independent  standpoint  by 
some  of  the  leading  Continental  botanists,  who,  however,  whilst 
agreeing  as  to  the  effect  and  action  of  these  organisms,  differ  con- 


THE  ORGANISMS   IN  YEAST.  217 

siderably  as  to  their  exact  nature  and  classification.  This,  then,  is, 
briefly  speaking,  what  has  been  done  in  the  investigation  of  ferment- 
life,  and  I  will  now  detail  certain  methods  of  procedure  which  may 
conveniently  be  employed  in  such  enquiries,  and  point  out  the 
grounds  on  which  their  value  depends. 

In  the  first  place,  in  order  to  study  the  Hfe-history  of  any 
animal  or  vegetable  organism,  we  need  to  obtain  satisfactory  and 
uncontaminated  specimens,  which,  as  regards  many  species,  espe- 
cially of  the  moulds,  may  be  readily  accomplished  by  the  means 
already  described  as  employed  by  M.  Pasteur.  But  where  it  is 
desired  to  study  the  principal  organism  in  yeast — the  "yeast- 
plant  "  itself — the  most  convenient  way  is  to  cultivate  ordinary 
yeast  in  successive  solutions  of  cane-sugar,  until  microscopic  exa- 
mination shows  that  such  other  organisms  as  were  at  first  present 
have  disappeared,  when  the  weakened  yeast-cells  may  be  re-invigo- 
rated, and  a  pure  crop  obtained  by  another  culture  in  well-boiled 
malt-wort,  which  supplies  the  needful  protein  matter,  as  well  as  the 
carbo-hydrates  of  the  sugar-solution.  Often,  commercial  yeast,  as 
obtained  from  the  brewery,  may  be  utilised  directly  for  many  pur- 
poses of  study ;  but  it  should  be  noted  that,  whilst,  in  many 
instances,  such  yeast  is  almost  wholly  free  from  foreign  organisms, 
in  other  cases,  and  especially  where  the  liquid  drainings  can  be 
had,  foreign  organisms  are  found  in  very  large  amount.  Where  it 
is  wished  to  make  a  rough  separation  of  the  more  minute  cell-Hfe, 
it  may  easily  be  done  by  means  of  filter-paper,  the  pores  of  which 
admit  the  passages  of  such  cells  as  the  Bacterium  lactis  and  similar 
minute  species.  Having  obtained  the  necessary  supply  of  material, 
the  next  thing  required  is  to  cultivate  it,  or  breed  it,  under  favour- 
able circumstances,  so  that  its  development  may  be  watched  and 
the  changes  that  take  place  noted. 

In  the  study  of  the  higher  plants,  the  botanist  avails  himself 
for  this  purpose  of  the  aquarium,  the  greenhouse,  and  the  garden ; 
but  in  the  case  of  these  minute  plants  which  are  now  under  con- 
sideration, not  only  must  a  suitable  soil,  so  to  speak,  be  provided 
for  their  nutriment,  but  they  must  be  protected  in  an  effectual 
manner  from  the  intrusion  of  those  germs  of  cell-life,  which  are 
practically  omnipresent,  and  from  which,  therefore,  both  the 
nutrient  liquids  and  the  circumambient  air  must  be  absolutely 


"^18 


THE    ORGANISMS   IN    YEAST. 


freed.  At  first,  it  was  thought  that  a  brisk  boihng  of  the  cultivat- 
ing liquid  for  a  short  time  would  effectually  destroy  any  organic 
life  that  might  be  present,  seeing  that  protoplasm  is  coagulated  at 
a  temperature  far  below  the  boiling-point  of  water,  and  that  by 
sealing  up  the  flask  while  ebullition  was  still  in  progress,  the  liquid 
within  would  be  protected  from  aerial  contamination ;  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that,  within  certain  limits^  both  these  propositions 
are  perfectly  correct.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  sealing-up  of  the 
flasks  in  this  manner  at  a  temperature  of  ebullition,  however 
appropriate  for  elucidating  the  beginnings  of  life,  is  inconsistent 
with  the  cultivation  of  cell-life  in  the  manner  we  require,  and 
another  difficulty  arises  in  the  fact  that  the  efficacy  of  a  few 
moments'  boiling  for  the  destruction  of  such  organisms  as  may  be 
present,  is  by  no  means  certain,  unless  the  absence  of  certain 
special  forms  be  first  assured. 

The  first  point — that  of  excluding  aerial  germs  from  a  liquid 
which  had  been — in  whatever  manner — rendered  sterile^  under 
conditions  which  at  the  same  time  admit  of  the  practical  culture 
and  study  of  any  desired  organism,  was  met  by  the  employment  of 
Pasteur's  cultivating  flasks,  having  a  long,  narrow,  curved  neck, 
which  is  plugged  with  cotton  wool,  and  a  shorter  side-neck,  with 
India-rubber  collar,  capable  of  being  closed  with  a  glass  plug. 
The  liquid  being  boiled  in  such  a  flask,  the  escaping  steam  des- 
troys in  its  passage  any  germs  of  life  which  may  exist,  either  on 
the  interior  surfaces  of  the  flask,  or  in  the  cotton  wool  through 
which  it  makes  its  exit,  and  when,  on  the  flask  cooling,  the  air 
re-enters,  the  latter  serves  as  an  effectual  filter  for  the  stopping  of 
any  particles  which  would  otherwise  be  introduced,  whether  living 
germs  or  otherwise.  If  we  presume  for  a  moment  that  this  boiling 
is  sufficient  for  the  destruction  of  organised  life,  we  shall  now  have 
a  nutrient  liquid  free  from  the  agents  of  change,  and  surrounded 
by  an  equally  pure  atmosphere,  into  which  the  organism  to  be 
cultivated  is  introduced  or  "sown"  by  dropping  in  a  bit  of  plati- 
num wire,  or  foil,  which,  after  being  heated  to  redness,  is  touched 
with  the  organism  to  be  cultivated,  so  that  a  little  adheres,  and  is 
admitted  to  the  flask  by  the  momentary  removal  of  the  stopper  in 
the  short  neck.  If  the  manipulation  be  conducted  with  ordinary 
dexterity  and  speed,  no  harm   is  likely  to  arise   from  the  short 


THE   ORGANISMS   IN   YEAST.  219 

contact   with   the  external  air  involved   in   the    removal   of  the 
stopper.     But  another  and  more  formidable  difficulty  appears,  as 
to   how   to   ensure   the   sterilisation  of  the    nutrient   fluid.     Dr. 
Charlton  Bastian  has  stated,   in  his  "  Beginnings   of  Life,"  that 
even  in  flasks  hermetically  sealed,  it  by  no  means  follows  that, 
because  the  Hquid  (infusion  or  what  not)  has  been   boiled,  no 
development  of  organisms,  and  consequently  no  fermentation,  will 
take  place  ;  in  fact,  he  asserts  that  the  preservation  of  the  liquid 
unchanged   in    such    flasks    and  under    such    conditions  is    the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule.     How,  then,  is  this  to  be  met  ? 
In  support  of  his  views,  Dr.  Bastian  brought  forward  numerous 
experiments  made  with  infusions  of  turnip  and  fresh  cheese  under 
the  above  conditions,  by  which  it  was  clearly  shown  that  mere 
boiling  by  no  means  ensured  the  destruction  of  ferment-life  in  an 
organic  liquid ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  Pasteur  points  to  flasks 
of  malt  infusions  which   had  remained  many  years  ^ — in  some 
instances,  I  believe,  as  many  as  twelve — on  the  shelves   of  his 
laboratory  unaltered,   although  only  separated  from  the  internal 
atmosphere  by  a  plug  of  cotton  wool.     In  a  celebrated  lecture 
delivered  some  years  since,  Professor  Tyndall  showed  that  infu- 
sions of  hay  could  not  be  freed  from  germ-life  by  simple  boiling, 
even  when  continued  for  several  hours,  and  that  such  a  result 
could  only  be  arrived  at  by  repeating  the  process  several  times 
with  special  precautions.     It  was  also  found  by  Cohn  that  the  same 
thing  held  good  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  other  infusions, 
and  by  this  observer  it  was  soon  noticed  that^  whatever  species  of 
germ-life  might   be  present  before   ebullition,  any   development 
which  appeared  afterwards  was  invariably  of  the  genus  Bacillus^\ 
and  that  in  the  absence  of  organisms  of  this  genus,  complete  steri- 
lisation could  be  effected  by  boiling. 

It  is  not  necessary  now  to  enter  into  the  question  of  the  germi- 
nation— if  such  it  be — of  Bacillus  from  spores,  for  as  those  liquids 
which  are  most  suited  for  our  present  purpose,  rarely  seem  to 
contain  either  Bacillus  or  its  spores,  it  is  not  of  immediate 
importance,  and  so  far  we  may  feel  satisfied  of  our  ability  to 
destroy  the  germs  of  life  in  our  cultivating  fluids.     Pasteur,  in  his 

*  "  Etudes  sur  la  Riere,"  L.  Pasteur,  p.  28. 
t  "  Quar.  Jour.  Micro.  Science,"  1877,  p.  83. 

i 


220  THE   ORGANISMS  IN  YEAST. 

"  Etudes  sur  la  Biere,"  says  of  this  : — "  Experiment  has  proved 
that  an  ebullition  of  some  minutes  gives,  to  a  malt  infusion  spe- 
cially, an  absolute  freedom  from  change  when  in  contact  with  pure 
air — that  is  to  say,  with  air  deprived  of  the  organic  germs  which 
it  invariably  contains,"*  and  as  such  infusions  are  among  the  best 
media  for  the  culture  of  industrial  ferments,  and  as  any  doubt  as  to 
the  ready  practical  sterilisation  of  the  nutrient  fluids  employed 
would  render  the  results  obtained  worthless,  I  have  thought  it  well 
to  refer  to  some  special  examples.  Some  weeks  since,  a  friend 
prepared  for  me  a  series  of  flasks,  containing  malt  infusions,  and 
as  he  was  unaware  of  the  object  for  which  the  preparations  were 
made,  and  simply  acted  on  my  instructions  conveyed  through  a 
third  party,  no  preconceived  ideas  of  mine  could  in  any  way  have 
affected  the  result.  The  infusion  was  made  from  a  good  sample  of 
malt  in  distilled  water  at  about  i8o°  F.,  and  was  filtered  hot  into 
the  flasks,  which,  after  the  closing  of  the  necks  with  cotton  wool, 
were  briskly  boiled,  each  for  some  ten  minutes.  They  were  then 
placed  on  a  shelf,  where  they  remained  for  a  considerable  time, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  an  albumenoid  precipitate,  which 
formed  on  cooling,  the  contents  have  remained  unaltered,  and 
without  the  slightest  indication  of  the  presence  of  ferment-life.  It 
may  be  useful  to  point  out  that  the  same  thing  has  been  shown  to 
be  true  of  milk,  and  of  the  liquid  known  as  ''  Pasteur's  cultivating 
fluid,"  by  Professor  Lister,  who  has  given  the  name  of  Bacterium 
lactis  to  the  organism  to  which  the  acid  change  in  the  former  is 
due — and  others  ;  while  Dr.  W.  Roberts,  in  his  address  before  the 
British  Medical  Association  at  Manchester  in  the  year  1877,  exhi- 
bited a  great  number  of  organic  infusions  and  secretions  which  had 
been  rendered  permanently  sterile  by  the  application  of  proper 
means  for  the  destruction  or  removal  of  organised  cell-life.  We 
may,  therefore,  be  satisfied  that  cultivating  liquids  may  be  readily 
freed  from  the  germs  of  organised  life,  and  also  that,  practically 
speaking  at  any  rate,  no  confusion  or  error  is  to  be  apprehended  in 
our  cultures  from  any  spontaneous  evolution  of  organised  cells. 

The  next  step  is  to  ascertain  what  media  are  best  adapted  to 
the  culture  of  the  special  class  of  organisms  which  it  is  desired  to 
investigate.     And  that  such  is  not  an  immaterial  point  is  shown  by 

*  Etudes  sur  la  Bierre,  chap.  III.,  p.  33. 


THE   ORGANISMS   IN  YEAST.  221 

the  fact  which  Prof.  Lister  has  brought  forward — viz.,  that  the  B. 
ladis  (the  lactic  ferment)  refuses  to  live  in  Pasteur's  "  Cultivating 
solution,"  and  also  by  the  fact,  that  while  the  yeast-cell  only  lives 
with  difficulty  in  a  solution  of  sugar  alone,  and  is  not  able  to  mul- 
tiply in  such  a  medium,  similar  conditions  are  actually  destructive 
to  the  life  of  the  more  minute  organisms  which  are  usually  also 
present  in  commercial  yeast,  and  that  on  this  fact  a  practical  pro- 
cess of  yeast  purification  has  been  based.  Moreover,  those  organ- 
isms develop  most  readily  and  most  freely  in  the  nutrient  fluid  to 
which  it  is  best  adapted,  and  where  a  number  of  dissimilar  fer- 
ments are  placed  in  an  organic  liquid,  some  will  usually  increase  to 
the  exclusion,  and  sometimes  even  to  the  extinction,  of  those  of 
weaker  growth,  or  those  to  which  the  nutriment  is  less  suited.  It 
is,  moreover,  a  well-known  practical  fact  to  brewers,  that  the 
nature  of  the  development  of  cell-life  which  takes  place  during  and 
after  the  fermentation  of  their  worts,  is  largely  dependent  on  the 
character  of  the  nitrogenous  and  carbo-hydrate  constituents.  It 
is,  then,  beyond  doubt  necessary  to  choose  the  cultivating  medium 
with  special  reference  to  the  type  of  organism  we  wish  to  culti- 
vate. 

Liquids  adapted  to  be  the  soil  for  the  nurture  of  certain  classes 
of  organisms  have  been  devised  by  Cohn  and  by  Raulin — the 
latter  having  been  utilised  by  Pasteur — while  grape-juice,  malt 
infusions,  and  various  animal  secretions,  have  been  employed  by 
various  observers  according  to  the  nature  of  their  studies.  For 
such  investigations  as  we  are  now  considering,  I  have  already 
mentioned  that  an  infusion  of  malt  affords  a  convenient  and  suit- 
able medium,  and  it  may,  if  necessary,  be  supplemented  by  other 
preparations,  such  as  the  nutrient  fluid  of  Cohn,  if  it  be  desired  to 
cultivate  separately  the  more  minute  organisms  which  are  usually 
associated  with  the  germ-cells  themselves.  The  malt  from  which 
the  infusion  is  made  should  be  of  the  best  quality  procurable ;  by 
preference  a  malt  made  from  barley  grown  and  ripened  in  a  hot 
country ;  or  where  a  good  brewer's  wort  can  be  obtained,  this  may 
be  substituted,  diluting  it  to  a  standard  strength — some  40?  to  50'' 
specific  gravity  will  answer  the  purpose — with  distilled  water.  This 
infusion  being  placed  in  a  number  of  cultivating-flasks,  and  boiled 
as  before  described,  is  placed  on  one  side  for  a  time  to  ensure  the 


222  THE   ORGANISMS   IN   YEAST, 

absence  of  ferment-life,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  start  a  culture, 
the  material  is  introduced  at  the  side-neck,  and  the  flask  or  flasks 
being  retained  at  a  suitable  temperature,  the  development  rapidly 
takes  place.  The  basis  on  which  the  culture  proceeds,  and  the 
means  to  be  adopted  in  order  to  ensure  reliable  results,  having 
been  dealt  with,  it  remains  to  consider  what  it  is  which  we  are 
about  to  cultivate  in  these  carefully-prepared  flasks. 

Yeast,  in  its  ordinary  form  and  when  fresh,  consists  of  a  light, 
yellowish,  more  or  less  pasty  mass,  composed  mainly  of  minute 
unicellular  organisms,  mixed  with  a  certain  amount  of  the  ferment- 
ing liquid  from  which  it  has  been  removed,  and  more  or  less  car- 
bonic-acid gas.  It  is  with  the  organisms  that  we  have  now  to  do. 
These  consist,  firstly  and  chiefly,  of  the  "Yeast-Plant"  of  Schwann, 
the  cells  of  the  Torula  cerevisice.  or,  as  it  has  more  recently  been 
called,  the  Saccharomyces  cerevisice^  which  are  shown  in  Plate  25 
at  Nos.  I  and  2,  as  seen  under  a  quarter-inch  objective,  and  in 
Nos.  3,  4,  5,  and  6  under  a  one-tenth  immersion  objective,  with 
No.  3  oc,  together  usually  with  certain  nearly  allied  species  of 
Saccharomyces,  and  of  a  few  cells  of  the  Badermm  lactis  (shown  in 
the  Plate  at  No.  8,  as  seen  under  the  one-tenth  inch  objective). 
But  usually  one  finds  also  more  or  less  of  those  varieties  of  fer- 
ment-life which  Pasteur  has  designated  as  the  "  ferments  of 
disease  "  {^ferfiients  de  maladie).  Those  which  are  most  commonly 
met  with,  in  addition  to  the  lactic  cell — which,  unless  present  in 
large  quantity,  is  not  generally  considered  as  injurious — are  the 
thin  acetic  rod,  or  filament,  which  produces  acetic  acid  (No.  7), 
and  more  rarely  the  butyric  ferment,  the  Bacillus  siihtilis  (No.  9), 
the  minute  SaLxharomyces  apicidatus^  (No.  12),  and  other  forms  of 
less  importance. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  these,  it  will  be  as  well  to  glance 
for  a  moment  at  the  various  views  of  the  nature  and  classification 
of  these  organisms  which  have  been  advanced  by  different  observ- 
ers. Von  Naegeli,  in  a  valuable  work,  pubHshed  in  1877,  con- 
siders them  all  as  belonging  to  the  Fungi,  and  as  nearly  related  to 
the  moulds  or  mucedines,  although,  as  he  points  out,  this  connec- 
tion is  only  traceable  so  far  as  those  organisms  of  which  the  Torula 
cerevisicB  may  be  taken  as  the  type.  He  divides  them  into  two 
groups  only,  making  the  "moulds''"  into  a  third,  and  describes 


THE   ORGANISMS   IN  YEAST.  223 

them  as  "  Sprouting  Fungi,"  in  which  are  included  yeast-cells  of 
different  kinds,  which  increase  by  means  of  sprouts  or  buds  from 
the  surfaces,  and  "  Cleft-Fungi,"  or  Schizomycetes^  more  minute 
spherical,  ovoid,  or  elongated,  all  which  multiply  by  fission  only, 
and  which,  sometimes  retaining  a  slight  connection  one  with  the 
other,  form  unbranched  rows,  rods,  etc. 

Of  the  first  division,  there  can,  I  think,  be  very  little  doubt  as 
to  the  closeness  of  the  relationship  between  it  and  the  moulds^  as 
from  Pasteur's  researches  the  latter  appear  capable,  under  certain 
circumstances,  of  assuming  the  functions  of  an  alcoholic  ferment, 
and  at  the  same  time  modifying  materially  their  characteristic  fea- 
tures and  development.  Of  the  "  Cleft-Fungi  "  Naegeli  says  : — 
"  I  have  during  the  last  ten  years  examined  some  thousands  of 
different  fission  ferment-cells,  but  (excluding  Sarcind)  I  could  not 
assert  that  there  was  any  necessity  to  separate  them  into  even  two 
specific  kinds."  Hence  he  considers  that  all  the  organisms  which 
multiply  in  this  manner,  however  varying  in  shape,  are  best  con- 
sidered as  one  class,  which  he  places  among  the  Fungi  under  the 
name  of  Schizoniycetes.  These  views  are  to  some  extent  supported 
by  Cienkowski,  who,  while  considering  many  of  the  Bacterial  forms 
to  belong  to  the  Algae  rather  than  to  the  Fungi,  does  not  see  suffi- 
cient ground  for  distinguishing  them  into  numerous  species.  On 
the  other  hand,  Cohn,  and  many  other  highly-skilled  observers, 
hold  entirely  different  opinions,  considering  that  sufficiently  distin- 
guishing features  exist  to  admit  of  an  elaborate  classification,  though 
to  some  extent  of  a  provisional  nature,  and  viewing  Naegeli's  ScJiizo- 
mycdes  as  nearer  alHed  to  the  Alg^e  than  to  the  Fungi,  have  placed 
them  with  the  former  under  the  name  of  Schizophytes.  Pasteur, 
who  has  investigated  the  subject  from  a  more  purely  technical 
point  of  view,  has  not  troubled  himself  with  nomenclature  further 
than  was  necessary  for  his  immediate  purpose,  and  has  adhered  to 
the  old  terms.  I  am  not  prepared  to  commit  myself  to  any  defi- 
nite opinion  as  to  the  whole  subject,  but  I  may  point  out  that  the 
difference  in  the  action  of  certain  well-defined  form-species,  and 
the  fact  that  the  medium  which  will  support  some  varieties  will 
not  meet  the  requirements  of  others,  indicates  in  an  unmistake- 
able  manner  that  certain  definite  varieties  exist  differing  in  other 
points  beyond  mere  form.     Some  years  since,  Dr.  Roberts  pro- 


224  THE   ORGANISMS  IN   YEAST. 

posed  to  utilise  the  term  Saprophytes  to  include  all  organisms  con- 
cerned in  putrefactive  or  fermentative  changes,  and  for  the  present 
I  propose  to  adopt  it,  employing  where  necessary  such  distinctive 
terms  as  are  most  generally  understood. 

The  "  Yeast-Plant "  of  the  earlier  observers,  the  Torula  cere- 
vtsice,  consists  of  a  spherical  or  ovoid  cell,  having  an  interior 
albuminous  hning  containing  protoplasm,  and  an  outer  coat  of 
cellulose,  which  may  be  distinguished  by  means  of  re-agents.  The 
protoplasm  appears  to  be  devoid  of  chlorophyll,  and  in  mature 
samples  several  small  vacuoles  and  minute  spherical  bodies,  some 
of  which  are  evidently  of  an  oily  nature,  are  to  be  observed ; 
whilst  in  most  cells  is  a  more  or  less  developed  spherical  vesicle, 
generally  towards  one  side,  and  the  contents  of  which  are  evi- 
dently liquid.  This  formation  will  be  seen  on  reference  to  the 
plate,  and  is  especially  noticeable  in  No.  3,  which  was  obtained  from 
a  very  old  stock  in  a  Northern  brewery,  and  less  so  in  Nos.  5  and 
6,  which  are  from  Burton.  This  vesicle  not  infrequently  contains 
a  remarkably  spore-like  spherical  body,  but  which,  in  the  majority 
of  specimens,  especially  from  breweries  where  what  is  known  as  a 
"  fast  "  fermentation  is  carried  on,  does  not  seem  to  develop  fully. 
In  the  sample  shown  at  No.  3,  and  in  others  from  the  same 
source,  the  cell-wall  and  the  border  of  the  vesicle  alike  exhibited  a 
degree  of  firmness  ;  while  the  interior  spore-like  body  was  large 
and  well  developed,  and  possessed  a  rapid,  gyratory  movement 
within  the  vesicle.  I  have  on  several  occasions  been  fortunate 
enough  to  observe  this  movement,  which  I  believe  is  hitherto 
unrecorded,  and  under  a  power  of  some  1,500  diameters  it  can  be 
watched  with  the  greatest  certainty.  But  I  have  not  been  able 
to  satisfy  myself  as  to  the  manner  in  which  this  movement  is 
brought  about,  although  the  peculiar  jerky  gyrations  suggests 
the  idea  that  it  is  due  to  the  action  of  cilia  or  flagella,  and  if 
so,  suitable  illumination  will  no  doubt  enable  us  to  detect  them.* 
I  have  never  been  able  to  find  any  indication  of  such  motion  in 
any  specimens  of  Burton  yeast,  though  I  have  received  a  very  great 
number,  neither  is  it  usually  to  be  found  in  the  yeasts  from  the 

*  Since  writing  the  above  the  Author  has  placed  specimens  in  the  hands  of  a 
friend,  by  whom,  after  careful  examination,  the  movements  are  pronounced  to  be 
undoubtedly  due  to  the  influence  of  heat,  and  are  probably  identical  with  those 
known  as  Brownian  movements. 


THE   ORGANISMS   IN   YEAST.  225 

breweries  of  the  West  of  England.  In  some  of  the  specimens, 
and  notably  in  the  one  from  which  the  drawing  was  taken,  it 
endured  for  at  least  a  week.  The  nutrition  of  the  cell  appears  to 
be  effected  by  a  process  of  osmotic  diffusion  through  the  cell-wall, 
a  continual  transmission  of  nutrient  material  going  on  from  the 
surrounding  liquid  towards  the  interior,  where  it  is  assimilated  as 
food,  and  a  reverse  or  outward  action,  by  which  we  may  presume 
some  excretory  products  are  removed,  simultaneously  proceeding. 
Hence  we  may  assume  that  only  diffusable  substances  are  capable 
of  sustaining  the  life  of  the  Yeast-cell,  but  how  far  it  possesses 
the  power  of  rendering  materials  which  may  be  presented  to  it  fit 
for  its  assimilation  and  sustenance  is  another  thing,  and  one 
which,  though  deeply  interesting,  I  must  pass  by  for  the  present. 

The  presence  of  oxygen  gas,  or  of  some  carbo-hydrate  or  other 
compound,  by  the  decomposition  of  which  oxygen  can  be  obtained, 
and  of  some  protein  material,  in  this  nutrient  medium,  from  which 
the  cells  can  derive  nitrogen  in  some  form,  are  essential  to  its  life 
and  development.  The  exact  condition  in  which  this  nitrogenous 
nutriment  is  absorbed  is  a  matter  of  considerable  technical 
importance,  and  is  at  present  occupying  my  attention.  The  multi- 
plication of  the  cell  takes  place  by  a  process  of  geminatio7i^  or 
budding,  and  though  it  is  not  unlikely  that  considerable  additional 
knowledge  on  this  head  will  be  gained  in  the  future,  yet  it  would 
seem  that  if  any  other  mode  of  propagation  exists,  it  very  rarely 
comes  into  operation.  The  parent  cell,  when  placed  in  a  medium 
affording  a  supply  of  readily-assimilated  nutriment,  rapidly  assumes 
a  fuller  and  more  transparent  appearance,  and  after  a  time  extrudes 
a  bud  of  protoplasm,  which,  itself  absorbing  sustenance  like  the 
parent,  soon  equals  it  in  size,  and  puts  forth  a  second  generation — 
if  that  word  may  be  allowed  for  such  a  process.  Thus,  if  food  be 
abundant,  and  the  other  conditions  not  unfavourable,  a  rapid 
increase  of  cells  takes  place,  and  as  they  rarely  part  company 
immediately,  they  often  form  chains  of  considerable  length,  half-a- 
dozen  or  more  remaining  together.  This  process  is  shown  in  the 
drawings  in  the  upper  part  of  the  plate,  Nos.  4,  5,  and  6  of  which 
show  the  changes  taking  place  in  a  fermenting  wort  at  intervals  of 
forty-eight  hours.  The  result  of  the  vital  action  of  the  cell  is  the 
well-known  formation   of  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid,  and  certain 


226  THE   ORGANISMS   IN  YEAST. 

small  amounts  of  other  products,  as  Glycerine  and  Succinic  Acid, 
and  the  removal  of  a  small  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  consti- 
tuents, but  the  exact  manner  in  which  these  changes  are  brought 
about  is  yet  to  be  satisfactorily  ascertained. 

Of  the  other  organisms  which  are  present  in  commercial 
Yeast,  the  most  common  beyond  doubt  is  the  Bacterium,  which 
sets  up  the  lactic  change,  the  Bacterium  lactis  of  Lister,  by  whom 
it  is  described  in  the  Quart.  Journ.  Micro.  Science.,  as  "  being 
somewhat  peculiar  in  the  form  of  its  segments,  which  are  oval,  and 
not  so  rod-like  as  Bacteria  generally  " ;  whilst  Dr.  C.  Graham,  in 
his  Cantor  lectures  of  1874,  describes  them  as  "little  organisms  of 
the  shape  of  a  figure  8,  two  round  circles  together  " ;  and  Pasteur 
says,  "  Small  articulations,  slightly  strangled  in  the  middle,  gener- 
ally isolated,  more  rarely  joined  in  chains  of  two  and  three."  I 
have  been  particular  in  giving  these  descriptions,  as  these  cells  are 
often  somewhat  difficult  of  recognition.  They  are  shown  in  the 
Plate  at  No.  8,  as  seen  under  a  1 — 10  in.  objective;  but  I  am 
afraid  the  drawing  includes  some  other  Bacteria  besides  the  B. 
lactis.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this  organism,  in  common 
with  most  others  of  the  kind,  assimilates  its  nutriment  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  cells  of  Torula  cerevisice,  but  it  is  devoid,  so  far  as 
my  experience  goes,  of  any  appearance  of  the  internal  structure 
(so  to  speak)  which  is  visible  in  the  latter,  and  it  is  so  much 
smaller  in  size  as  to  be  readily  separated  from  it  by  means  of 
filter-paper.  It  is  in  the  strict  sense  a  fission-cell,  multiplying, 
according  to  Professor  Lister,  "  by  fissiparous  generation,  the  lines 
of  segmentation  being  transverse  to  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the 
organism,"  =:-  and  when  observed,  it  is  generally  in  some  stage  of 
division.  It  is  not  a  common  organism  in  the  ordinary  atmo- 
sphere, but  when  once  present  in  a  favourable  soil,  developes  with 
great  vigour,  to  the  hindrance  of  any  other  weaker  species.  It  is 
to  be  found  in  milk  when  souring,  and  in  malt  infusions,  especially 
developing  in  the  latter  when  retained  at  a  slightly  warm  tempera- 
ture, and  brings  about  in  both,  the  resolution  of  the  saccharine 
matter  into  lactic  acid.  Even  a  good  Yeast  is  scarcely  ever  seen 
altogether  free  from  this  organism. 


*  " 


Quart.  Journ.  Micro.  Science,"  1878,  p.  184. 


THE   ORGANISMS   IN   YEAST.  227 

A  much    more    objectionable  organism    which  is  frequently 
to  be  found  is  the  acetic  ferment,   is  shown  in  the  Plate  at  No. 
7,  as  seen  under  the  i — lo  in.  objective.      Under  a  low  power 
it  is  visible  simply  as  a  thin  rod  or  thread,  but  the  higher  power 
reveals  an  appearance  of  segmentation.     By  the  agency  of  these 
filaments,  the  alcohol  of  beer   or  wine  in  which  they  appear,  is 
converted  more  or  less  into  acetic  acid,  and  whilst  they  are  dreaded 
by  the  brewer,  and  considered  by  him  as  a  ferment  of  disease,  they 
are  utilised  as  an  industrial  agent  by  the  vinegar-maker,  whose 
mucilaginous  ferment  consists  essentially  of  them,  and  I  should 
therefore  describe  them  as  the  Mycoderma  aceti\  had  this  name  not 
been  already  applied  by  Pasteur  to  another  form  ;  hence,  to  avoid 
confusion,  I  use  the  term,   acetic  ferment.      From  the  peculiar 
movements  of  these  rods,   especially   at  their  extremities,  I  am 
incHned  to  think  that  they  are  provided  with   flagella,  but  am  not 
aware  that  any  observation  of  them  has  been  recorded.     These 
organisms  also  multiply  by  transverse  fission,  and  although  I  have 
seen  some  appearances  indicative  of  the  formation  of  spore-like 
bodies,  I  am  by  no  means  inclined  to  advance  any  opinion  as  to 
any  such  means  of  increase.     The   sediment  of  beer   or  porter 
which  has  become  somewhat  acid  will  always   afibrd  a  plentiful 
supply  of  this  organism,  which  may  be  cultivated   in  a  little  thin 
wine  or  beer.    An  intruder  more  rarely  seen  among  the  Yeast-cells 
is  the  Bacillus  sicbtilis,  the  celebrated  Bacillus  of  the  hay  infusions, 
or,  at  any  rate,  an  organism  precisely  similar  to  it  in  all   respects, 
by  which  butyric  fermentation   is   induced.     It  is  shown   in  the 
Plate  at  No.  9,  and  is  too  well  known  to  need  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion.    Messrs.   Dahinger  and  Drysdale,  by  the  use  of  extremely 
high  powers  and  very  careful  illumination,  have  satisfied  themselves 
that  this  organism  is  possessed  of  flagella,  and  their  well-known 
researches  render  it  probable  that   such  appendages  are  general 
among  the  Saprophytes  at  some  stage  of  their  existence. 

The  only  remaining  varieties  of  organised  ferments  likely  to  be 
met  with  associated  with  the  Yeast-cell  are  theMycodernia  cerevisia^ 
the  mould  which  so  quickly  forms  on  the  surface  of  malt  infusions 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  which  when  submerged  acts  as  an  alcoho- 
lic ferment — it  is  shown  at  No.  1 1  on  the  Plate  ;  the  Saccharoniyces 
apimlatus  (No.  12),  a  small  cell,  inducing  a  peculiar  acid  change 


228  THE   ORGANISMS   IN   YEAST. 

in  worts  and  beers,  and  which  has  recently  been  investigated  at 
length  by  C.  Hansen,  of  the  Carlsberg  Laboratory  ;  and  certain 
Bacterial  forms  (No.  lo),  which,  by  their  power  of  inducing  a 
gelatinous  formation,  sometimes  cause  much  injury  in  manufactur- 
ing operations.  These  species  are,  however,  rarely  met  with  in 
ordinary  yeast;  at  any  rate,  in  this  country.  They  are  more  com- 
monly to  be  found  in  worts,  or  in  beers  themselves,  than  in  the 
yeast  which  is  used  to  start  the  fermentation. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XXV. 


Fig.   1. — Saccharomyces  from  the  yeast  of  a  Burton  Brewery. 

,,     2. — Ditto  from  a  West  of  England  Brewery,  where  artificial  sac- 
charine is  used. 

,,     3. — Ditto  from  a  Northern  Brewery,  showing  round  or  spherical 
cells.     (1-lOth  in.  obj.,  3  oc.) 

,,  4.  ^  Cells  of  Saccharomyces  in  different  stages  of  development, 
, ,  5.  >  in  the  fermentation  of  a  brewer's  wort ;  taken  at  intervals  of 
,,     6,  J  48  hours.     (]-10th  in.  obj.,  3  oc.) 

,,     7. — Acetic  ferments  employed    in  vinegar  making.      1-lOth  in. 
obj.,  3  oc. 

,,     8. — Cells  of  B.  lactis,  shewing  increase  by  sub-division,   1-lOth 
obj.,  3  oc. 

,,     9. — Cells  of  Bacillus  subtilis,  from  a  brewer's  wort  when  putrid, 
1 -10th  obj.,  3  oc. 

,,  10. — Bacteria  inducing  a  ropy  or  gelatinous  change,  1-lOth  obj., 
3  oc. 

,,  11. — Mycoderma     cerevisise,    as    found    in    stale    beer   or    malt 
infusion,  1-lOth  obj.,  3  oc. 

,,  12. — Saccharomyces  apiculatus  from  a  peculiar  acid  beer,  1-lOth 
obj.,  3  oc. 


[  229  ] 

®n  tbe  Collection  anb  preparation  of 

tbe  ©iatomacea^* 


By    Alfred     W.     Griffin. 


Part  II. — Preparation. 

HAVING  accumulated  a  number  of  gatherings  and  rough 
material  which  contain  specimens  of  Diatomaceae,  the  next 
step  is  to  clean  and  preserve  the  Diatoms  for  future  use 
and  study.  If  any  microscopist  wishes  to  mount  a  few  slides,  the 
process  of  cleansing  by  Nitric  Acid  is  certainly  the  easiest,  and 
there  is  no  necessity  to  refer  further  to  it  here  ;  but  I  would  add 
that  whilst  occasionally  very  clean  specimens  may  be  obtained, 
yet,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  they  are  far  from  satisfying  the  critical 
eye  of  the  experienced  mounter.  A  few  of  the  most  approved 
and  satisfactory  methods  I  will  now  mention,  remembering  that 
even  these  will  have  to  be  modified  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
materials  to  be  operated  upon.  These  materials,  for  convenience 
sake,  I  will  divide  into  the  following  series  :^ recent  gatherings  ; 
muds  ;  guanos  ;  lacustrine,  marine,  and  fossil  deposits. 

In  recent  gatherings,  there  will,  in  all  probability,  be  a  large 
quantity  of  sand  or  other  earthy  admixture  which  it  will  be  as  well 
to  remove  before  commencing  to  use  the  acid.  This  is  best  ac- 
complished by  pouring  clean  water  upon  the  gathering,  and  then 
decanting  off  the  supernatant  fluid  ;  the  siliceous  particles  being 
the  heavier,  will  have  fallen  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass,  which  should 
be  of  a  conical  shape.  After  an  interval  of  about  two  hours  the 
water  containing  the  diatoms  should  be  examined,  and  when  it  is 
found  that  they  have  subsided  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass,  so  much 
as  is  possible  of  the  fluid  should  be  poured  off  from  the  sediment, 
leaving  it  nearly  dry.  The  Diatoms  must  now  be  transferred  to 
a  strong  test  tube,  and  covered  with  Nitric  Acid  to  the  height  of 
an  inch.  Effervescence  usually  takes  place  in  a  few  minutes,  and 
it  will  be  well  to  wait  until  this  subsides.     The  test  tube  is  then  to 

R 


230  COLLECTION  AND   PREPARATION 

be  held  over  a  spirit-lamp  and  carefully  heated  until  the  reaction 
of  the  organic  matter  ceases  ;  and,  while  the  liquid  is  still  hot, 
Professor  Meade  Edwards  recommends  the  addition  of  one  or  two 
fragments  of  Bichromate  of  Potash  to  bleach  what  organic  matter 
may  still  remain. 

The  next  step  in  the  process  is  to  pour  the  contents  of  the 
test  tube  into  a  jar  of  clean  water,  at  the  same  time  rinsing  out  the 
test  tube,  and  adding  the  result  to  the  rest  of  the  water  containing 
the  Diatoms,  which  should  now  be  allowed  to  settle  for  three  or 
four  hours  at  least.  This  being  accomplished,  pour  off  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  fluid,  adding  fresh  water,  and  repeating  the  process 
till  all  acidity  is  removed,  which  may  be  proved  by  its  ceasing 
to  redden  litmus  paper.  Careful  attention  to  this  particular  will 
prevent  the  operator  falling  into  a  common  error,  whereby  many 
beautiful  specimens  are  rendered  unsightly  when  mounted.  The 
residuum  will,  in  all  probability,  consist  of  a  white  flocculent 
mass,  which  must  be  transferred  to  a  bottle  containing  water  and 
a  few  drops  of  Carbolic  Acid  or  a  little  alcohol,  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  confervoid  growth,  and  the  matting  together  of  the 
diatoms. 

Mud,  according  to  Professor  Edwards,  requires  to  be  treated 
in  a  somewhat  different  manner.  If  it  is  dry  and  lumpy,  it  will 
have  to  be  broken  down  by  boiling  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  mixture 
of  Liquor  Poiassce  and  water,  in  equal  parts;  after  it  has  passed 
into  the  state  of  soft  mud,  all  the  potash  must  be  washed 
out,  by  frequent  additions  and  decantations  of  clean  water.  To 
the  mud  thus  prepared  Nitric  Acid  must  be  added,  as  in  the  case 
of  recent  gatherings,  followed  by  the  use  of  the  crystals  of 
Bichromate  of  Potash,  as  already  described. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  Diatoms  are  insufliciently 
cleaned  by  this  means ;  the  sediment  must,  in  such  case,  be 
poured  into  an  evaporating  dish,  with  sufficient  pure  Sulphuric 
Acid  to  cover  it,  and  the  vessel  gradually  and  carefully  heated. 
To  avoid  any  chance  of  explosion,  so  soon  as  the  white  fumes  of 
the  acid  appear,  Bichromate  of  Potash  should  be  added  in  small 
portions,  and  when  the  green  colour  formed  by  its  reaction 
on  the  organic  matter  begins  to  assume  a  yellowish  tint,  a  few 
drops  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  must  be  added.     The  liquid  should 


OF  THE   DIATOMACE^.  231 

now  be  set  aside  to  cool,  when  the  deposit  must  be  finally  washed 
as  has  been  already  described.  There  is  another  process  which  is 
substantially  the  same  as  the  one  already  described,  but  with  this 
exception.  Sulphuric  Acid  is  substituted  for  Nitric  Acid,  and 
crystals  of  Nitrate  of  Potash  for  those  of  bichromate.  This  has, 
I  think,  some  advantages  over  the  first-mentioned  process,  and,  as 
I  invariably  follow  it^  I  have  the  greatest  confidence  in  recom- 
mending it.  When  a  recent  gathering  is  nearly  pure,  all  that  is 
required  is  to  burn  it  on  a  platinum  plate  over  a  gas  flame,  the 
organic  matter  being  quickly  carbonised,  while  the  beautiful 
siliceous  shields  alone  remain  unafl'ected. 

Guanos. — The  preparation  of  these  substances  so  as  to  obtain 
the  Diatoms  mixed  with  them,  is  unquestionably  tedious  and  dirty; 
but  I  would  qualify  this  somewhat  discouraging  remark  by  stating 
that  these  ammoniacal  guanos  contain  by  far  the  most  beautiful 
forms,  and  the  result  is  therefore  well  worth  the  labour  bestowed. 
As  a  type  of  this  we  will  take  some  Peruvian  guano,  first  sifting  it 
to  free  it  from  stones,  feathers,  and  other  debris.  The  finely-sifted 
material  should  be  slowly  dried  in  an  oven,  which  causes  the 
evaporation  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ammonia,  and  most  of 
the  moisture  with  which  it  is  so  frequently  charged.  A  tin  pan  or 
skillet  is  now  to  be  half-filled  with  a  strong  solution  of  commercial 
Carbonate  of  Soda,  about  three  ounces  of  sodcE  carb.  to  the  pint  of 
water,  and  placed  over  a  gas-stove,  and  on  the  liquid  boiling  the 
guano  is  gradually  and  slowly  dropped  in.  It  is  necessary 
frequently  to  stir  the  solution  to  prevent  its  boiling  over,  owing  to 
a  considerable  effervescence  produced  by  the  Soda  on  the 
Ammonia  of  the  guano.  When  the  liquid  ceases  to  effervesce,  it 
is  poured  into  a  plentiful  supply  of  clean  water,  and  washed 
several  times,  taking,  of  course,  every  care  that  the  frustules  of  the 
Diatoms  are  not  washed  away  in  the  process.  A  red-looking  mud 
is  the  result  of  this  process,  which,  on  boiling  in  Sulphuric  Acid, 
treating  with  Bichromate  of  Potash,  and  finally  washing,  will  yield 
some  very  clean  and  beautiful  specimens.  The  best  guanos  for 
treatment  are  without  question  those  of  Pabellon  de  Pica,  Isle  of 
Maccabees,  Patos,  and  Old  Ichaboe.  In  reviewing  the  work  done, 
it  will  be  well  to  consider  the  effect  of  the  acids  used,  always 
remembering  that   Hydrochloric  has  a  low  boiling  point,  Nitric 


232  COLLECTION  AND  PREPARATION 

Acid  boils  at  a  moderately  high  temperature,  and  Sulphuric  Acid 
the  highest  of  all ;  so  that  every  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
quality  of  the  test  tubes  or  flasks  used.  The  primary  use  of 
the  acids  is  to  remove  all  the  lime  compounds,  and  to  assist  in 
the  destruction  of  vegetable  matter ;  the  addition  of  the  Nitrate 
of  Potash  is  to  bleach  the  residuum,  but  the  sand  remaining, 
being  indestructible,  can  only  be  got  rid  of  by  frequent  washings 
and  decantations. 

Lacustrine  and  sedimentary  deposits  as  those  of  Dolgelly, 
Mull,  Mourne  Mountain,  Kieselgiihr,  Franzenbad,  and  Loch 
Kennard  are  so  pure  that  little  more  is  required  than  boiUng  in  a 
weak  solution  of  Caustic  Potash,  and  subsequent  washing.  Should 
there  be  an  unusual  quantity  of  organic  matter,  recourse  must  be 
had  to  Bergen's  method,  which  is  the  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Nitrate 
of  Potash  treatment,  already  described. 

.  Marine  and  fossil  deposits  of  the  character  of  South  Naparima, 
in  the  island  of  Trinadad,  Moron  in  Spain,  and  the  so-called 
Marls  of  the  island  of  Barbadoes,  and  all  those  of  a  stony  and 
rough  nature,  must,  before  boiling  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  go  through 
that  operation  in  Liquor  FofasscB,  till  the  whole  mass  is  broken 
down  into  a  soft  mud.  The  liquid  containing  this  in  suspension 
is  poured  into  hot  water,  and  after  a  space  of  three  or  four  hours 
all  Diatoms  will  have  fallen  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the 
resultant  mass  must  be  boiled  in  Hydrochloric  Acid  for  about 
twenty  minutes,  then  a  few  drops  of  Nitric  Acid  added,  again 
washing  out  the  acids  and  finally  boiling  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  and 
decolourising  with  Nitrate  of  Potash.  The  work  of  isolation  and 
separation  into  densities  must  now  be  proceeded  with,  and  I 
subjoin  Professor  Meade  Edwards'  method  which  I  prefer  to  many 
others,  as  I  venture  to  think  it  is  the  easiest  and  shortest.  Into  a 
beaker-glass  of  the  capacity  of  an  ounce,  the  cleansed  Diatoms  are 
to  be  poured,  filling  up  the  glass  with  clean  water ;  this  is  then 
stirred  with  a  glass  rod,  and  after  an  interval  of  six  seconds,' 
poured  slowly  into  a  larger  vessel,  taking  care  not  to  disturb  the 
sand  or  earthy  matter  which  may  have  settled.  The  beaker  must 
be  again  filled  with  water,  stirred,  and  allowed  to  settle  for  the 
same  interval,  and  poured  into  the  same  receptacle.  When  this 
has  been  repeated  about  six  times,  all  the  sand  free  from  Diatoms 


OF  THE   DIATOMACE^.  283 

will  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  first  vessel,  which  may  of 
course  be  thrown  away  with  every  feeling  of  satisfaction  on  the 
part  of  the  operator.  When  the  material  in  the  larger  beaker  has 
settled,  it  is  poured  back  into  the  smaller  one,  and  the  foregoing 
process  repeated,  the  densities  varying  according  to  the  time  allowed 
for  their  settlement,  and  if  the  patience  is  not  quite  exhausted,  as 
many  as  six  or  seven  densities  may  be  obtained,  containing  forms 
varying  very  much  from  each  other. 

The  larger  forms,  as  Triceratium,  Coscinodiscus^  and  Heliopelta^ 
are  to  be  found  in  the  coarsest  density,  and  the  broken  forms  in 
the  Ughtest.  When  it  is  desired  to  preserve  such  forms  as  Dickeia 
and  Schizonema  in  their  natural  condition,  I  think  there  is  no 
better  process  than  that  of  Herr  Hantzsch  of  Dresden,  the 
advantage  of  whose  method  is,  that  a  gradual  application  of  the 
preservative  fluid  is  brought  about,  the  action  of  endosmose 
slightly  retarded,  and  there  is  also  a  better  adjustment  of  the 
density  within  and  without  the  vegetable  cell.  The  fluid  he 
recommends  is  composed  of 

3  parts  Pure  Alcohol, 

2     ,,       Distilled  Water, 

I  ,,  Glycerine. 
A  cell  having  been  made  of  Gold  size  and  allowed  to  become 
"  tacky,"  a  drop  of  distilled  water  is  laid  in  the  centre,  and  in 
this  the  Diatom  or  Diatoms  are  placed,  and  then  a  few  drops  of 
the  preservative  medium  added.  The  sHde  must  be  laid  aside 
for  awhile,  and  covered  with  a  bell-glass  to  exclude  the  dust ;  after 
a  short  time  it  will  be  found  that  the  glycerine  alone  remains, 
more  of  the  liquid  must  be  added,  and  subsequent  evaporation 
submitted  to,  till  the  cell  becomes  full  of  glycerine.  The  cover- 
glass  should  now  be  applied,  a  thin  ring  of  gold  size  is  drawn 
round  the  edge  of  it,  which  will  temporarily  secure  it,  and  on 
this  becoming  hard,  the  cell  is  finished  with  gold  size  and  varnish 
in  the  usual  manner. 

A  somewhat  new  medium  has  been  recommended  by 
that  celebrated  Diatomist,  Dr.  Von  Heurck,  which  is  a  solution  of 
Styrax  in  benzole  or  chloroform  ;  personally  I  prefer  the  latter. 
Mr.  A.  C.  Cole,  of  London,  refers  to  it  at  length  in  a  recent 
number  of  his   "  Popular  Studies,"  therefore  I  do  not  think   it 


234  COLLECTION  AND  PREPARATION 

necessary  to  take  up  the  time  of  those  who  have  read  it,  but 
will  simply  add  that  I  have  almost  discarded  Balsam  in 
Benzole,  and  use  the  Styrax  solution  in  preference.  I  have  made 
a  series  of  experiments  with  some  sixteen  other  media,  but  none 
have  proved  so  satisfactory  for  cleanliness  and  clearness  of 
resolution.  The  refractive  index  of  Styrax  is,  I  believe,  much 
the  same  as  that  of  Monobromide  of  Napthaline. 

Some  little  attention  has  been  drawn  of  late  to  the  mounting 
of  diatoms  in  a  solution  of  Bmiodide  of  Mercury  and  Iodide  of 
Potassium ;  but  whilst  the  image  is  without  doubt  somewhat 
sharper  than  when  mounted  in  Balsam,  still,  the  possibility  of  the 
breakage  of  the  cover-glass,  and  the  consequent  escape  of  the 
mercurial  solution  over  the  objective  and  the  brass  work  of  the 
microscope  seems  hardly  worth  the  risk,  especially  when  it  is 
borne  in  mind  that  the  refractive  index  of  styrax  is  even  higher 
than  that  of  the  fluid  just  named.  Canada  balsam  has  an  index 
of  1*54,  the  solution  of  Mercury  and  Potassic  Iodide,  i*68  ;  next 
follows  Styrax,  and  finally  Phosphorus,  with  that  of  2'i. 

A  few  remarks  on  the  latter  medium  may  not  be  out  of  place, 
both  as  regards  its  solution  and  the  method  of  using  it.  It  is 
necessary  to  procure  clean,  semi-transparent  Phosphorus,  and 
having  cut  off,  under  water,  some  large  pieces  with  a  pen-knife, 
place  them  for  a  few  seconds  on  a  piece  of  white  blotting-paper  to 
free  them  from  the  slightest  suspicion  of  water.  Before  com- 
mencing, the  operator  should  be  provided  with  a  small  basin  of 
water  in  which  to  place  any  article  that  has  been  touched  with  the 
phosphorus  solution  to  prevent  accidental  combustion.  And  as 
this  medium  is  liable  to  oxidation,  it  is  better  to  make  but  a  small 
portion  at  a  time — that  is  to  say,  one  drachm  of  Phosphorus  to 
two  drachms  of  Bisulphide  of  Carbon.  When  the  former 
is  quite  dissolved,  slightly  damp  a  piece  of  filtering  paper 
with  Bisulphide  of  Carbon,  and  with  a  very  small  glass  funnel 
placed  in  the  neck  of  a  stoppered  bottle  carefully  filter  the  solu- 
tion. Place  the  glass  funnel  and  the  filtering  paper,  when  used,  in 
the  basin  of  water  to  prevent  accident.  Supposing  the  diatoms 
are  preserved  in  a  small  tube  of  water  and  spirit,  all  that  is  required 
is  to  place  a  drop  of  the  fluid  on  the  cover-glass,  and  slowly  eva- 
porate the  medium  over  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp  or  jet  of  gas. 


OF  THE  DIATOMACE^.  285 

When  the  cover-glass  has  become  quite  cool,  place  on  the  margin  of 
its  edge  a  mere  speck  of  Canada  Balsam,  the  object  of  which  is  to 
keep  the  cover^  with  its  surface  covered  with  diatoms,  face  down- 
wards, in  the  centre  of  the  glass  slip.  By  means  of  a  pipette, 
take  a  few  drops  of  the  solution  of  Phosphorus,  and  place  them 
on  the  edge  of  the  circle,  and  by  capillary  attraction  they  will  be 
immediately  drawn  under,  displacing  the  air  in  their  progress. 

Having  ascertained  that  the  diatoms  are  completely  immersed 
in  the  medium,  remove  all  superfluous  particles  of  Phosphorus 
with  a  piece  of  blotting-paper  damped  with  Bisulphide  of  Carbon, 
and  consign  it  also  to  a  basin  of  water.  Finally,  place  the  slide 
on  the  turn-table,  and  with  a  brush  dipped  in  Walton's  Glucine  or 
Kay's  Coaguline  (the  former  we  think  the  best)  draw  a  ring  round 
the  edge  of  the  cover-glass.  In  all  probability,  this  will  be  dry  in 
the  course  of  about  six  hours,  when  if  necessary  another  ring  of 
the  cement  may  be  added,  covering  this  with  a  further  application 
of  shellac  varnish,  or  asphalt,  and,  as  a  last  layer,  any  coloured 
cement  that  the  fancy  of  the  operator  may  dictate. 

Diatoms  that  are  almost  indistinguishable  in  balsam  show  quite 
clearly  in  this  medium.  The  structure  of  Heliopelta  and  Ompha- 
lopelta  are  brought  out  in  a  remarkable  manner,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  many  of  the  varieties  of  Naviaila,  Pleiirosigma.,  and 
Nitzschia.  I  am  quite  aware  that  the  odour  of  Bisulphide  of 
Carbon  and  Phosphorus  is  by  no  means  pleasing,  but  this  the 
operator  must  learn  to  disregard,  as,  since  it  "  cannot  be  cured,  it 
must,  therefore,  be  endured." 

As  a  precaution  against  burns  from  the  Phosphorus  getting 
beneath  the  finger-nails,  it  will  be  well  to  anoint  the  hands  with  oil 
or  vaseHne. 

In  closing  this  paper,  I  would  make  a  slight  reference  to  the 
mounting  of  Diatoms  in  lines  and  patterns,  which  may  be 
done  in  two  or  three  ways  ;  one  of  which  is  that  a  thin  solution 
of  isinglass  is  made  in  hot  water,  and  lightly  brushed  over  the 
centre  of  the  slide,  and  when  nearly  dry  the  Diatoms  are 
arranged  u],)on  it,  according  to  desire,  the  cover-glass  is  placed 
upon  it,  and  a  drop  of  Canada  Balsam  in  Benzole,  or  Styrax 
in  Chloroform  is  placed  on  the  outer  edge,  when  the  air  is 
displaced  by  the  incoming  fluid,  and  the   isinglass  also  dissolved 


236  COLLECTION,   ETC.,   OF   DIAT0MACEJ5. 

away.  When,  however,  the  finer  varieties  of  Diatoms  are  required 
as  test  objects,  it  is  well  to  mount  them  directly  upon  the  glass 
cover.  Geisbricht's  method  is  as  follows  : — The  slide  is  coated 
with  a  solution  of  shellac  in  absolute  alcohol,  washing  over  this 
with  oil  of  cloves,  and  when  the  Diatoms  are  arranged  in  patterns, 
warm  the  slide,  and  the  oil  of  cloves  is  soon  evaporated,  leaving 
only  the  work  to  be  done  of  putting  on  the  cover-glass,  and  the 
filling  in  with  either  of  the  two  mentioned  media.  Much  has 
been  learnt  of  the  internal  structure  of  the  valves  of  the  Dia- 
tomaceae  by  a  series  of  experiments  made  by  one  of  the  most 
prominent  Belgian  diatomists ;  however,  Mr.  Sollas  has  furnished 
us  with  his  method,  which  is  as  practical  as  it  can  well  be,  and  I 
therefore  append  it  as  it  appeared  in  a  recent  number  of  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society  : — 

*'  My  plan  is  to  scrape  off  the  green  slime  from  our  River  mud 
consisting  chiefly  of  Pleiirosigma  zigzag — a  large  species  suitable 
for  cutting.  The  slime,  together  with  some  mud,  unavoidably 
gathered  at  the  same  time,  is  placed  in  a  saucer  and  covered  with 
a  piece  of  muslin  which  is  to  be  in  immediate  contact  with  the  mud, 
while  a  film  of  water  lies  above  it.  The  saucer  is  now  exposed  to 
daylight,  and  the  Diatoms  creep  through  the  muslin,  collecting  in 
a  consistent  film  on  its  upper  surface.  The  muslin  may  now  be 
lifted  from  the  mud,  it  comes  away  clean,  bringing  all  the  Diatoms 
with  it,  but  leaving  the  mud  behind.  The  muslin  with  the 
Diatom  film  is  now  immersed  in  the  usual  hardening  and  staining 
re-agents.  I  have  used  a  mixture  of  Chromic  and  Osmic  Acid,  and 
absolute  alcohol,  for  hardening  ;  borax-carmine,  hsematoxylin,  and 
eosin  for  staining.  When  duly  stained  and  hardened,  the  Diatom 
film  may  be  removed  from  the  muslin  without  difficulty,  and  cut, 
either  by  imbedding  in  pure  paraffin  and  mounting  in  Canada 
Balsam,  or  freezing  in  Gelatine  jelly,  which  allows  one  to  cut 
consistent  sections  which  f?iay  be  mounted  direct  in  glycerine  on  a 
glass  slide,  without  passing  through  water." 

The  knowledge  which  such  a  process  imparts  of  the  internal 
structure  of  the  Diatom  is  most  important. 


Journal  of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3, PL  2£ 


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Scnccio  IDuloari^*  -' 

By  R.  H.  Moore. 


Plates     26     and     27. 


OUR  garden-weeds  are  common  enough — so  common,  in  fact, 
that  many  are  accustomed  to  pass  them  by,  without  giving  a 
thought  to  their  wonderful  structure,  marvellous  beauty, 
and  curious  adaptation  to  surrounding  circumstances.  I  suppose 
it  is  quite  orthodox  and  proper  to  despise  the  garden  of  the 
sluggard,  notwithstanding  the  untiring  industry  of  Nature,  which 
clothes  the  uncultured  soil  with  verdure.  The  original  curse — 
"  Thorns  and  thistles  shall  it  bring  forth  to  thee,"  has  clung  to  the 
earth  throughout  all  ages. 

"  Rank  weeds,  which  every  art  and  care  defy. 
Reign  o'er  the  land,  and  rob  the  blighted  rye  ; 
O'er  the  young  shoot  the  charlock  throws  a  shade. 
And  clasping  tares  cling  round  the  sickly  blade." 

In  sheer  retaliation  man  gazes  on  the  weedy  wastes  with  proud 
contempt,  or,  v/ith  more  praiseworthy  retaliation,  arms  himself 
with  spade  and  hoe  to  destroy  these  emblems  of  the  fall. 

Surely,  Nature  cannot  be  blamed  for  her  prolific  harvests :  far 
better  these  than  blank  sterility,  but  we  may  blame  a  lazy 
neighbour  whose  indolent  habits  render  the  curse  a  double  one 
to  us,  in  causing  our  own  gardens  to  bring  forth  a  prolific  crop  of 
thistles,  from  seeds  blown  from  his.  It  may  be  mortifying  enough 
for  us  to  be  compelled  to  eat  our  bread  in  the  sweat  of  our  brow, 
but  when  our  toil  is  increased  by  a  neighbour's  own  idleness,  we 
feel  that  we  are  the  victims  of  an  additional  curse  which  ought 
not  to  exist,  and  from  which  we  certainly  ought  to  be  spared. 

*  We  deem  it  right  to  say  that  this  paper  was  written  for  the  Bath  Micro- 
scopical Society,  and  read  before  that  society  two  years  ago  ;  so  that  it  is  quite 
independent  of  another  on  the  same  subject,  entitled  "A  Bit  of  Groundsel," 
by  Rev.  H.  W.  Lett,  which  appears  on  pages  loi — 6  of  the  present  volume. 
Both  papers  mutually  supplement  one  another,  and  show  how  two  thoughtful 
men,  writing  quite  independently  of  each  other,  may  find  much  that  is  new 
and  interesting  in  the  most  common  subject. — [Ed.] 


238  SENECIO   VULGARIS. 

The  student  of  Natural  History,  however,  is  not  painfully 
alarmed,  even  at  the  presence  of  weeds  ;  to  him  Nature  in  every 
form  is  charming.  The  coarse-looking  and  formidable  nettle 
affords  him  infinite  delight ;  its  devices  for  seed-scattering,  its 
extraordinary  hairs  with  their  reservoirs  of  poison,  are  to  him 
objects  worthy  of  close  and  patient  research.  The  simple  beauty 
of  the  silvery-petalled  Chickweed,  with  its  beautifully  carved  seeds ; 
the  prolific  Spurge,  with  its  remarkable  floral  structure,  are  as 
much  worthy  of  admiration  as  our  choicest  exotics. 

AVe  speak  of  Groundsel  as  a  weed  ;  let  me  ask,  "  What  is  a 
weed  ?  "  If  we  turn  to  our  dictionaries  we  shall  be  told  that  a 
weed  is  "  Any  plant  of  small  growth  that  is  useless,  noxious,  or 
troublesome."  If  such  is  a  true  definition  of  the  word,  our  pet 
canaries  will  undoubtedly  declare  that  the  "  Groundsel  is  not  a 
weed."  The  word  "  weed  "  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  "  weod,"  an 
herb,  and  under  this  term  the  Groundsel  may  be  safely  included. 

The  Senecio  is  a  genus  of  plants  originally  found  only  in 
Europe  and  the  southern  parts  of  Asia ;  but  like  many  other  genera 
of  our  wild  plants,  it  follows  in  the  train  of  civilisation,  and 
wherever  Europeans  settle,  it  is  soon  established  amongst  the 
colonists.  The  seeds  are  doubtless  carried  with  the  grain  which  is 
exported  for  cultivation  on  foreign  soils. 

This  genus  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Composifce^  which 
includes  also  the  Daisy,  the  Chrysanthemum,  the  Sun-flower,  the 
Aster,  and  the  Dahlia.  This  order  is  divided  into  three  sub- 
orders, and  it  is  to  the  first  of  these — viz.,  Corymbiferae — that  the 
Senecio  belongs.  The  name  of  this  sub-order  is  derived  from 
"  corynibus,''  a  summit,  and  ''  fero,''  to  bear,  the  plants  belonging 
to  it  having  generally  a  disc  of  tubular  florets  in  the  centre  and 
a  ray  of  strap-shaped  florets  in  the  circumference,  although  the 
Groundsel  is  destitute  of  the  latter. 

The  order  Composite^  is  one  of  the  largest  and  at  the  same 
time  one  of  the  most  important  natural  families  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom;  it  contains  more  than  i,ooo  genera  and  almost  10,000 
known  species.  As  many  as  600  species  of  Senecio  (British  and 
foreign)  are  known,  amongst  which  are  included  annual,  perennial, 
and  half-shrubby  plants.    Withering  enumerates  ten  British  species. 


SENECIO  VULGARIS.  239 

six  of  which  are  mentioned  by  Babington,  in  his   "  Flora  Bathoni- 
ensis,"  and  may  be  fomid  in  this  neighbourhood. 

All  the  British  species  have  yellow  flowers,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  the  popular  names  of  Groundsel  and  Ragwort.  The 
word  (jroundsel  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  ^^Grund^' 
ground,  and  ^^  swelgan^'^  to  swell,  because  the  ground  swells  with  it 
— i.e.^  the  plant  grows  everywhere.  The  name  Ragwort  is  derived 
also  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  "  hraeod"  ragged,  and  "  ivyrt^'  a  plant, 
on  account  of  the  ragged  appearance  of  its  leaves. 

Humboldt  found  Groundsels  just  below  the  perpetual  snows  of 
the  Andes.  In  an  old  botanical  work  I  find  mention  made  of  four- 
teen species  which  are  not  considered  common  weeds ;  they  are 
natives  of  North  America,  Madras,  Africa,  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  Paris,  and  the  Levant.  Senccio  Pseudo- 
China,  a  plant  far  too  tender  for  British  cultivation,  except  as 
a  stove-plant,  grows  on  the  open  ground  in  Madras,  and  there  are 
three  species  indigenous  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  requiring  much 
care  during  the  winter  in  England  if  planted  out  of  doors.  Another 
species  from  the  Cape,  S.  elegans,  possesses  a  floral  disc  of  beautiful 
purple  rays,  but  with  the  exception  of  this  species  and  of  another 
with  white  flowers,  all  the  species  of  this  genus,  however  tender, 
have  yellow  flowers  as  in  this  country. 

The  name  Senecio,  from  the  Latin  ^^  Se7iex,'^  is  said  to  have  been 
given  to  this  genus,  either  on  account  of  the  silvery  hairs  which 
deck  the  seeds,  or  because,  when  the  seeds  have  been  scattered  by 
the  wind,  the  bald  receptacle  is  so  prominent  through  the  subsid- 
ence of  the  divisions  of  the  calyx. 

The  alleged  medicinal  virtues  of  this  plant  are  very  numerous. 
Withering  informs  us  that  a  strong  infusion  of  Groundsel  will  occa- 
sion vomiting.  He  also  tells  us  that  the  bruised  leaves  of  the 
plant  form  a  healing  application  to  boils,  and  that  one  species  of 
Senecio  is  recommended  as  a  remedy  for  the  terrible  disease  of 
Cancer.  Surprising  cures  are  stated  to  follow  an  application  of 
bruised  leaves  in  most  severe  cases  of  sciatica,  etc.  S.  Saraceni- 
cus  is  said  to  have  derived  its  specific  name  from  the  fact  that  the 
Saracens  used  the  plant  for  the  purpose  of  curing  their  wounds. 

In  regard  to  its  dietetic  properties,  none  of  the  species  are 
esculent.     Withering  tells  us  the  brute  creation  have  very  mingled 


240  SENECIO   VULGARIS. 

feelings  in  regard  to  its  savoury  character.  Cows  are  reputed 
to  eat  it,  although  they  do  not  consider  it  a  luxury.  Goats  and 
swine  eat  it,  whilst  sheep  refuse  it.  To  the  feathered  race,  how- 
ever, it  is  a  choice  morsel. 

"  I  love  to  see  the  little  goldfinch  pluck 
The  groundsel's  feathered  seeds,  and  twit  and  twit, 
And  soon  in  bower  of  apple-blossom  perched. 
Trim  his  gay  suit,  and  pay  us  with  a  song." 
One  of  the   British  species  of  Ragwort  (S.  JacobcEci)  is  said  to 
afford  a  good  and  permanent  yellow  dye  for  woollen  goods. 

Having  thus  briefly  sketched  the  habits  and  utility  of  the 
genus,  we  will  now  confine  our  attention  to  the  common  species  of 
Groundsel,  Senecio  vulgaris. 

The  seeds  are  of  extreme  beauty,  each  plume  bearing  a  single 
seed.  Their  number  is  very  great.  A  single  plant  may  produce 
from  1 20  to  130  flowers,  and  each  flower  from  50  to  60  seeds. 
This  wonderful  fertility  provides  for  all  losses,  whether  by  tillage  or 
by  the  depredations  of  insects,  birds,  or  cattle.  Linnaeus  calcu- 
lated that  an  annual,  producing  only  two  seeds  in  the  year,  would, 
if  unchecked,  establish  a  million  plants  in  twenty  years.  What, 
then,  would  be  the  increase  of  a  plant  which  produces  6,500 
seeds  in  one  season  ?  Darwin,  in  his  "  Origin  of  Species,"  relates 
an  experiment  to  prove  the  destruction  of  seedling  plants  by  slugs 
and  insects.  On  a  piece  of  ground  3  feet  long  and  2  feet  wide, 
dug  and  cleared  for  the  purpose,  he  marked  and  counted  all  the 
seedlings  of  our  native  plants  as  they  made  their  appearance,  and 
out  of  357  so  marked,  295  were  destroyed.  The  rich  harvests  of 
Groundsel  every  year  arise,  therefore,  from  the  immense  seed- 
bearing  properties  of  these  plants.  But  there  is  yet  another 
powerful  agent  at  work  to  prevent  the  extirpation  of  the  species, 
and  this  is  self-fertiUsation,  and  by  this  I  simply  mean  fertifisation 
without  the  aid  of  wind  or  insects.  There  is  also  a  system  of 
cross-fertilisation,  which  will  be  explained  presently. 

From  the  fact  of  the  flowers  of  Groundsel  having  no  rays.  Sir 
John  Lubbock  infers  that  it  is  rarely  visited  by  insects.  It  does 
not,  therefore,  depend,  as  do  many  others,  upon  the  ex- 
change of  pollen  between  several  plants.  Were  it  to  depend  on 
this,  the  fact  of  its  being  in  a  great  measure  unvisited  by  insects 


SENECIO   VULGARIS.  241 

would  be  a  serious  impediment  to  its  increase.  Mr.  Darwin,  in 
the  same  chapter  to  which  I  have  already  referred,  instances  a 
plant  oi  Lobelia  fidgens  in  his  garden,  which  absolutely  will  not  pro- 
duce seed  unless  visited  by  insects  ;  but  as  in  his  locality  he  knows 
it  is  not  so  visited,  he  compromises  the  matter,  and  insures  his 
seedlings  by  crossing  the  pollen  with  his  own  hands.  He  dwells 
further  upon  the  mutual  checks  to  increase,  remarking  that 
plants  and  animals  are  bound  together  by  a  web  of  complex 
relationship.  He  believes  that  the  Heart's-ease  (  Viola  tricolor)  and 
the  Red  Clover  ( Trifolhwi  pratense)  are  wholly  dependent  for  their 
existence  upon  the  visits  of  Humble-Bees,  other  bees  not  visiting 
these  flowers.  If  the  Humble-Bee  became  extinct,  he  believes  that 
these  plants  would  become  extinct  also. 

Now,  the  Humble-Bees  increase  or  decrease  in  inverse  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  field-mice  found  in  the  same  district,  as  these 
animals  destroy  their  nests  and  combs  :  one  naturalist  affirms  that 
throughout  England  two-thirds  of  the  Humble-Bees  are  thus  des- 
troyed :  and,  lastly,  the  number  of  field-mice  depends  on  the 
number  of  cats.  The  same  naturalist  affirms  that  near  villages 
and  towns  the  number  of  Humble-Bees  is  greater  than  in  the  open 
country,  because  the  cats  (as  we  in  Bath  know  by  painful  experi- 
ence) are  more  numerous.  Darwin,  therefore,  adds — "  It  is  quite 
credible  that  the  presence  of  feline  animals  in  large  numbers  in  a 
district  might  determine,  through  the  intervention,  first  of  mice, 
and  then  of  bees,  the  frequency  of  certain  flowers  in  that  district." 
Hence  the  peculiar  self-fertilising  character  of  the  flowers  of 
Senecio  vulgaris  is  an  additional  cause  for  the  favourable  increase 
of  the  plant. 

To  recapitulate,  then,  we  have  three  very  important  causes 
which  prevent  the  extinction  of  the  Groundsel  : — 

I. — Parachute,  or  "  plumed  "  seeds,  which  insure  distribution. 

2. — Vast  seed-bearing  qualities. 

3. — Self-fertilisation,  which  renders  the  plant  indifferent  to  the 
visits  of  insects. 

As  to  the  dissemination  of  these  plumed  seeds  by  the  agency 
of  the  wind,  Mr.  H.  J.  Slack,  in  his  paper  on  "  Plant-Hairs,"  in 
Science  for  All,  narrates  an  interesting  fact  which  came  under  his 
own  observation.     When  looking  through  an  astronomical  tele- 


242  SENECIO   VULGARIS. 

scope  in  a  particular  direction,  the  sky  seemed  to  swarm  with  pale, 
glittering,  falling  bodies,  like  a  miniature  shower  of  meteors,  and 
he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  were  the  plumed  seeds  of  one 
of  the  Composite  plants,  probably  those  of  the  thistle,  glancing  in 
the  sun-beams. 

The  hairs  of  the  corona,  or  "  plume  "  of  the  common  Ground- 
sel are  very  transparent,  and  are  composed  of  oblong  and  tolerably 
regular  cells,  apparently  filled  with  air.  They  are  very  thorn-like, 
and  have  longitudinal  markings  upon  them,  which  are  probably 
grooves  (Plate  26,  Fig.  2). 

The  oblong,  cylindrical  seed-vessel,  called  in  botanical  lan- 
guage the  AchcBnium,  is,  when  mature,  of  a  rich  brown  colour,  and 
has  several  rows  of  minute  silvery  hairs  upon  its  surface.  The 
upper  portion  is  formed  into  a  ring-hke  tissue,  from  which  the 
corona  of  hairs  springs.  In  the  drawing,  Plate  26,  Fig.  i,  I  have 
purposely  left  one-half  of  this  ring  destitute  of  plumes,  that  the 
appearance  may  be  better  understood. 

In  regard  to  the  short  silvery  hairs  of  the  achsenia,  the  Micro- 
graphic  Dictionary  refers  to  their  interesting  character,  in  that  when 
brought  into  contact  with  water  they  emit  spiral  fibres.  In  the 
A7inals  of  Natural  History  for  1841,  the  same  character  is  referred 
to.  The  seeds  should  be  quite  mature,  and  must  be  gathered 
before  dew  or  rain  has  visited  them.  I  have  witnessed  this  curious 
process  in  seeds  which  have  been  matured  under  home  protection, 
and  the  drawing.  Fig.  3,  is  made  from  a  camera-lucida  drawing 
immediately  after  the  bursting-forth  of  the  spiral  fibre.  The  expe- 
riment is  a  very  delicate  one,  owing  to  the  minute  character  of  the 
hairs.  The  hairs,  when  moistened  with  water,  appear  to  divide 
themselves  into  two  portions,  and  from  each  longitudinal  half,  a 
fibre,  rather  indistinctly  spiral,  protrudes  from  the  apex  of  each 
division,  or  if  the  hairs  are  broken,  is  propelled  through  the  fracture, 
and  sometimes  from  the  base  of  the  hairs.  During  the  propulsion 
of  this  fibre,  the  detached  hairs  are  vigorously  swayed  to  and  fro, 
apparently  in  consequence  of  the  internal  force  which  accompanies 
the  emission,  the  stream  of  tissue  rapidly  moves  from  base  to 
apex,  and  extends  to  two  or  three  times  the  length  of  the  indivi- 
dual hair.  The  same  phenomenon  is  met  with  in  a  few  other 
plant-hairs,  but  I  have  not  at  present  been  able  to  solve  the  pro- 


SENECIO   VULGARIS.  243 

blem  as  to  the  reason  of  this  remarkable  provision.  Probably  the 
fibres  serve  in  securing  the  seed  to  the  earth,  when  it  has  been 
wafted  thither  by  the  agency  of  the  wind. 

Another  interesting  fact  in  connection  with  the  seeds  is  the 
number  of  raphides  and  other  crystals  contained  in  the  cuticle  of 
the  unripened  germ,  and  subsequently  in  the  testa  of  the  seed. 
These,  when  mounted  as  a  microscopic  slide,  present  a  very  beau- 
tiful appearance  under  polarised  light.  They  are  represented  in 
Plate  27,  Figs.  4  and  5. 

The  roots  of  Senecio  vulgaris  are  very  branching,  of  silvery 
whiteness,  and  are  densely  covered  with  fine  hairs.  The  large 
number  of  branchlets  and  their  hair-like  appendages  enable  the 
plant  to  take  a  firm  hold  upon  the  surrounding  soil,  and  it  is  far 
easier  to  break  the  plant  short  off  from  the  earth  than  to  draw  it 
out  with  the  roots  entire.  The  rootlet  tip  is  well  figured  by  Mr. 
Lett  in  Plate  XII.,  Fig.  7,  of  this  volume.''^ 

The  stem  of  Senecio  vulgaris  is  irregularly  cylindrical,  having 
very  few  hairs  upon  it ;  it  is  sometimes  of  a  reddish  brown, 
and  sometimes  of  a  uniform  green  colour.  The  more  mature 
stems  are  hollow,  but  in  certain  earlier  stages  they  are  filled  with  a 
pith-like  structure  composed  of  pentagonal  and  hexagonal  cells. 
My  own  sections  show  internal  cells  larger  than  those  figured  by 
Mr.  Lett  in  Plate  XII.,  Fig.  2  ;  but  he  has  very  clearly  shown 
the  fibro-vascular  bundles. 

The  leaves  of  this  plant  are  winged,  indented,  alternate,  and 
clasping  the  stem  ;  they  are  sparingly  covered  with  long,  silky 
hairs.  The  mid-rib  is  prominent,  and  forms  a  keel-like  structure 
at  its  union  wdth  the  stem.  The  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  is  dark 
green,  and  slightly  rough,  with  many  minute  protuberances,  and 
the  cuticle  adheres  so  closely  that  it  cannot  be  detached  without 
stripping  away  with  it  the  dense  masses  of  chlorophyll  which  fill 
the  internal  portion  of  the  leaf  The  underside  of  the  leaf  is  of  a 
lighter  shade,  almost  approaching  to  a  greyish  tint,  and  its  cuticle 
can  be  more  readily  detached.  On  this  under  cuticle  the  stomata 
are  numerous,  but  very  minute,  and  although  not  readily  distin- 
guishable they  may  be  well  seen  if  the  cuticle  is  stained  and 
examined  with  the  spot-lens.  Mr.  Lett  has  given  a  faithful  draw- 
ing of  this  cuticle  (PI.  XIL,  Fig.  6). 

*  See  "A  Bit  of  Groundsel,"  p.  loi. 


244  SENECIO   VULGARIS. 

The  leaves  appear  to  be  destitute  of  raphides,  but  the  cells 
apparently  contain  large  quantities  of  very  minute  starch-grains. 
In  some  of  the  leaves  I  have  also  detected  some  large  discs  of  a 
substance  which  I  take  to  be  Inuline  (Fig.  6,  under  polarised  light). 

Inuline  is  closely  related  to  starch  and  sugar,  and,  according  to 
Sachs,  is  very  abundant  in  the  cell-sap  of  the  Compositae,  and  may 
be  readily  developed  by  the  application  of  alcohol,  when  it  will  be 
detected  in  large  masses  of  a  spherical  crystalline  structure,  which 
under  polarised  light  appear  very  similar  to  the  crystals  of  Oxalu- 
rate  of  Ammonia,  showing  a  distinct  cross  with  its  point  of  diver- 
gence exactly  in  the  centre  of  each  sphere.  As  in  my  experiments 
all  the  leaf-sections,  as  well  as  the  whole  leaves,  have  been  pre- 
pared in  alcohol,  I  venture  to  suggest  that  these  beautiful  polar- 
ising discs   are   most  probably  inuline. 

The  floral  structure  of  the  Groundsel  must  now  claim  our 
attention.  The  flowers  are  in  clusters  surrounding  the  stem  of  the 
plant,  and  each  composite  head  is  situated  upon  a  floral  stem. 
To  an  ordinary  observer  there  is  nothing  attractive  in  the  small 
green  capsules  with  bulging  bases  and  black,  pointed  calyx-scales ; 
and  were  it  not  for  the  bright  yellow  adornment  above  them, 
tipping  as  with  richest  gold  the  long  green  caskets,  many 
persons  would  scarcely  recognise  any  flowers  at  all.  But  within 
them  lies  a  rich  and  varied  store  of  creative  skill  and  adaptation, 
and  we  are  compelled  to  use  lens,  needle,  and  scalpel  to  assist 
us  in  the  elucidation. 

The  "  involucre,"  or  green  cup,  which  encloses  all  the  florets  is 
composed  of  sixteen  or  seventeen  sepals  or  bracts.  The  involucre 
is  double,  and  has  smaller  bracts  at  its  base  ;  the  longer  bracts 
tightly  enclose  the  "  capitulum,"  or  head  of  florets  attached  to  the 
receptacle,  and  on  the  seeds  becoming  mature  they  unclasp  and 
fall  downwards  below  the  receptacle,  but  they  still  remain  attached. 
By  mounting  several  of  them,  both  stained  and  unstained,  we  dis- 
cover that  the  apex  of  each,  which  when  in  growth  is  almost  black 
in  colour,  shows  a  pretty  fringe  of  membrane  when  examined 
under  polarised  light  (Fig.  7).  This  involucre  is  the  calyx  des- 
cribed by  Withering  and  all  old  botanists. 

,    The  calyx  proper  is  that  which   surrounds  each   floret,  and  in 
the  case  of  the  Groundsel,  Dandelion,  and  Thistle,  is  really  the 


Journal  of  Microscopy  Vol.  3, P1.27 


-It ':  *>*jt^ 


y-S^ 


xoo 


Xl^. 


SENECIO   VULGARIS.  245 

plume  attached  to  the  germen,  and  for  this  reason  it  answers  to  the 
description  of  a  superior  calyx,  and  remains  attached  to  the 
mature  seed.  Instead  of  the  term  calyx  for  this  part  of  the 
flower,  modern  botanists  have  named  it  the  "  pappus." 

We  now  pass  on  to  a  description  of  the  florets.  These,  as  I 
have  said,  are  all  tubular ;  no  strap-shaped  ray-florets  are  found,  as 
in  the  daisy.  Each  floret  is  hermaphrodite,  containing  both  pistil 
and  stamens.  Much  time  and  patience  are  required  to  open  the 
tubes,  owing  to  their  minute  character,  but  unless  this  is  done,  it 
is  quite  impossible  to  understand  the  structure  of  the  reproductive 
organs. 

The  florets  are  monopetalous,  each  petal  having  five  clefts,  and 
there  are  from  fifty  to  sixty  petals  in  the  capitulum.  Each  floret 
possesses  five  stamens  and  one  pistil.  The  five  stamens  form 
themselves  into  a  tube  within  the  corolla,  through  which  the  pistil 
pushes  forward  its  head.  The  stamens  and  filaments  are  quite 
distinct,  the  latter  growing  from  the  base  of  the  corolla,  and  the 
former  cohering  with  close  embrace. 

The  pollen-grains  lie  upon  the  inner  faces  of  the  stamens,  and 
as  the  pistil  grows  upward  through  the  pollen-lined  tube,  the 
grains  of  farina  are  pushed  upwards  towards  the  top  of  the  corolla, 
and  when  the  pistil  protrudes  itself,  the  fine  and  delicate  hairs  with 
which  it  is  furnished  are  loaded  with  pollen-grains.  By  studying 
the  drawing  (Fig.  8),  the  system  of  fertilisation  in  the  Groundsel 
may  be  readily  understood.  In  floret  A,  the  interior  of  the  corolla 
is  laid  bare,  in  order  that  the  syngenesious  character  of  the 
stamens  may  be  observed.  The  pistil,  as  it  passes  through  the 
tube  of  stamens,  appears  as  a  cylindrical  organ  with  a  hairy,  thick- 
ened summit.  So  soon  as  it  has  passed  the  tube,  the  summit 
loaded  with  pollen  separates  into  two  parts,  until,  as  in  floret  B,  it 
appears  with  two  widely-extended  arms,  each  one  bearing  at  its 
extremity  a  brush-like  appendage  studded  with  pollen-grains.  In 
floret  C,  the  summit  is  still  more  advanced,  and  the  poflen-grains  at 
the  extremities  have  disappeared.  But  although  we  here  have  a 
system  of  j'^Z/^-fertilisation  in  each  plant,  there  is  a  wonderful  sys- 
tem of  f;vj-jr-fertilisation  carried  on  between  the  floret  of  each 
capitulum.  The  pollen  of  floret  A  does  not  fertilise  the  pistil  of 
A^  and  the  like  negation  belongs  to  florets  B  and   C;  there  is  an 

s 


246  SENECIO   VULGARIS. 

interchange  of  reproductive  agency.  If  we  examine  the  capitu- 
lum  with  a  pocket-lens,  we  shall  observe  that  in  some  of  the 
florets  the  pistils  have  protruded,  whilst  in  others  they  are  still 
lying  in  the  close  embrace  of  the  stamens.  In  fact,  the  pistils  and 
stamens  of  each  floret  do  not  mature  simultaneously.  The  cloven 
summits  of  florets  A  and  B  are  not  ready  to  be  impregnated  with 
the  pollen  they  have  been  bearing  aloft ;  they  are  simply  carrying 
the  pollen-grains  to  fertilise  the  stigma  of  floret  C.  The  pistil  of 
floret  C  has  previously  risen  and  scattered  its  pollen-grains  on  the 
already  matured  stigmas  of  other  florets  ;  and  so  the  poUen-grains 
of  floret  B  fall  upon  the  matured  stigma  of  floret  C,  and  impreg- 
nation ensues. 

The  upper  surfaces  of  the  summits  of  the  pistils  are  alone 
stigmatic  ;  that  is,  they  are  furnished  with  the  viscid  substance 
which  causes  the  poflen-tubes  to  grow,  and  pass  down  the  style  to 
fertilise  the  contents  of  the  ovary. 

The  study  of  this  very  common  wild  flower  has  well  repaid  me 
for  the  time  spent  upon  it — and  none  of  our  readers  need  be  at  a 
loss  to  find  microscopical  profit  and  pleasure— if  he  wiU  only  take 
up  one  of  our  commonest  weeds,  and  work  out,  with  the  aid  of 
the  microscope,  its  Hfe-history ;  let  him  not  perplex  himself  by 
hunting  up  ah  the  literature  that  may  have  been  written  on  the 
subject,  but  take  pocket-lens  and  needles,  and  set  to  work. 
Mount  as  microscopical  objects  every  conceivable  portion,  and  by 
the  aid  of  the  camera  lucida  make  careful  and  accurate  drawings 
of  the  same.     He  will  then  be  able  to  say  with  Coleridge  : — 

"  Nature  ne'er  deserts  the  wise  and  pure ; 
No  plot  so  narrow,  be  but  Nature  there ; 
No  waste  so  vacant,  but  may  well  employ 
Each  faculty  of  sense,  and  keep  the  heart 
Awake  to  love  and  beauty." 


HALF-AN-HOUK   AT   THE   MICROSCOPE.  247 


EXPLANATION   OF  PLATES   XXVI.    AND  XXYH. 


Plate  XXVI. 
Senecio  vulgaris. 
Fig.  1. — Seed  divested  of  half  its  plume,  x  20. 
2. — Hairs  of  plume,   x  240. 
3. — Hairs  of  Achcenium,  with  spiral  fibres,  x  240. 


J) 

J? 

>) 
>> 


Plate  XXVII. 

4. — Section  of  Germen,  with  Raphides  in  situ,  x  240. 

5. — Section  of  Testa,  with  ditto,  x  50. 

6. — Section  of  Leaf,  with  Inuline  Crystals,  x  240. 

7. — Apex  of  Bract,   x   54. 

8. — Florets  to  explain  Cross-Fertilisation,  x  12, 


1l3alf:^an*=1bour  at  tbe  fIDicroecopc, 

Mitb  /Il>i%  Uutfen  Mest,  jf.X,5.,  ff^lR./ID.S.,  etc. 


Black-Ground  illumination  is  a  poor  way  of  getting  at  the  facts 
which  a  specimen  may  disclose ;  so  also  is  polarising.  An  exami- 
nation should  be  commenced  with  the  lowest  power  likely  to  be 
suitable ;  then  higher  and  higher  powers  applied,  when  probably  at 
each  step  new  facts  will  be  discovered — i.e.,  if  the  object  be  not 
spoilt  by  being  mounted  merely  with  the  intention  of  looking 
pretty.  Our  object  should  be  to  see  things  as  exactly  as  possible  as 
they  are  in  life.  Crushing  an  object  with  spring  clips  is  diametri- 
cally opposed  to  this,  and  should  be  in  a  general  way  avoided. 
Use  potash  in  the  preparation  of  an  insect  if  needful,  but  if  you 
do,  try  to  get  it  into  its  natural  form  afterwards.  Don't  think 
that  perfection  is  to  get  things  as  painfully  flat  as  possible — that 
is  the  most  unlike  nature  that  can  be. 

Seeds,  Paulownia  imperialis. — This  furnishes  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  objects  for  displaying  the  powers  of  the  binocular 
microscope  which  I  know.  The  pleasing  effect  of  these  exqui- 
sitely delicate  lace-like  wings  is  very  great.  The  natural  order, 
ScROPHULARiACE/E,  to  which  the  plant  belongs,   furnishes  very 


248  HALF-AN-HOUR 

many  seeds  of  interest  to  the  microscopist.  Those  of  Nemesia 
especially  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  present  speci- 
men ;  as  well  as  the  seeds  of  Lophospciimim^  Afaurandaya,  the 
Antirrhinums,  Foxgloves,  Mullens,  Eye-Bright,  Bartsia,  etc.  And 
the  closely  allied  order,  BiGNONiACEyE,  has  for  one  of  its  distinc- 
tive characters,  "  seeds  winged,"  and  furnishes  magnificent  exam- 
ples of  the  structure.  Fancy  a  seed  an  inch  across,  with  a  wing 
of  the  same  width  all  round  !  Such  is  Calosa?ithes  indica.  Eccre- 
vwscarpits  scabej-  is  a  well-known  plant,  having  a  winged  seed 
approaching  to  the  latter  in  structure.  This  (structure)  is  caused 
by  the  undue  development  (according  to  law)  of  some  of  the  cells 
composing  the  testa  over  others.  It  has  been  well  described  by 
H,  B.  Brady  in  "  The  Quar.  Jour,  of  Micro.  Science  "  (Transac- 
tions)   for  July,   1 86 1,  p.  65,  PI.  VII. 

The  name  is  differently  spelt  by  different  authorities.  Lindley 
gives  it  as  Faulownia,  and  this  is  what  I  have  always  been  used 
to ;  but  I  find  Henfrey,  in  his  "  Elementary  Course  of  Botany," 
has  two  "  Ts,"  thus,  PaiiUoivjiia. 

Spicules  of  Grantia   compressa. — There   are    seven    British 
species  of  Grantia  described.     One  of  their  characters  is  to  have 
the  spicula  calcareous,   instead    of   siliceous,   as   in    most   other 
sponges,  hence  readily  soluble  in  dilute  acids.      Grantia  compressa 
has  a  classic  interest,  from  its  being  the  form  in  which  Dr.   Grant 
first   discovered  "  inhalation  "  and  "  exhalation,"  the  vital  action 
of  the  sponge,  and  so  settled  the  controversy  as  to  the  Spox- 
GID/E   being  truly  animal,  and   not  vegetable,  as   many  had  sup- 
posed, from  their  peculiar  inertness  and  vegetable-like  mode  of 
growth.     Bowerbank  followed  up   these  researches   on   "  Ciliary 
Action  in  the  Spongiida,'"  by  a  paper  published  in  the  "  Transac- 
tions of  the  Microscopical  Society,"  Vol.  III.,  p.  137,  and  it  is  to 
him  that  we  owe  most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  wonderful  elabo- 
rateness of  design  in  most  of  the  sponges,  with  spicules  of  differ- 
ing forms,  according  to  the  varying  purposes  of  the  animal  eco- 
nomy :  some  for  building  up  the  framework,  others  for  purposes  of 
protection   or  defence,  and  yet  others  of  a  third  order  to  bind 
those  named  together.     The  tri-radiate  spicula,  however  modified 
by  size  and  form,  are  essentially  skeleton  spicula  ;  while  the  simple 
acerate  form  appertains  more  especially  to  the  defences  of  the 
animal.   (Bowerbank  on   "Grantia  Ciliata "   in   "Quar.  Journ.  of 
Micro.    Science,"   July^    1859    (Transactions),    pp.    79 — 84).      A 
paper  of  unusual  interest,  to  which  I  would  refer  all  who  desire  to 
follow  up  the  subject. 

Bugula  avicularia. — Examples   may  be   mounted  with    the 
polypes  fully  expanded  by  dropping  gin  carefully  and  slowly  into  a 


AT   THE   MICROSCOPE.  249 

small  vessel  containing  the  living  specimen  in  sea-water,  observing 
to  do  so  when  the  polypes  are  fully  expanded.  This  intoxicates 
them ;  they  die  in  their  extruded  condition,  and  can  be  removed 
and  mounted.  The  "  BirdVhead "  processes  are  remarkable 
organs,  which  during  life  are  continually  moved  upwards  and 
downwards  with  the  regularity  of  a  pendulum.  Their  structure 
and  nature  have  been  carefully  investigated  by  Prof.  Busk.  A 
powerful  abductor  muscle  closes  the  beak  ;  a  small  abductor  opens 
it.  These  are  of  striped,  voluntary  fibre.  The  centre  of  the 
"  head  "  is  occupied  by  a  body,  which  appears  to  be  ''  ganglionic," 
and  when  the  beak  is  widely  opened  a  bunch  of  tactile  hairs  is 
exposed. 

Ophiocoma  neglecta  is  a  highly  interesting  object.  Note  the 
circlet  of  five  didactyle  pedicellaria,  round  the  mouth-opening,  and 
the  corona  of  them  on  the  hard  parts  surrounding  where  the  soft 
inner  structures  commence  ',  also  the  curious  claws  on  the  under- 
surface  of  the  rays.  W.  B.  Herapath,  in  the  Qiuir.  Jour.  Micro. 
ScL,  1865,  pp.  175 — 184,  may  be  consulted  with  advantage  in 
Pedicellaria;  and  G.  Hodge,  in  Trans.  Tyneside  Naturalists''  Field 
Club,  has  a  valuable  paper  on  the  development  of  Ophiocoma 
rostila,  with  a  special  view  to  these  hooks,  which  he  states  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  young  Brittle  Stars,  and  to  be  afterwards  modified 
into  spines  by  a  process  which  he  fully  describes,  pp.  42 — 48,  and 
note  on  p.  64.  Members  residing  near  the  seaside  would  do  well 
to  confirm  and  extend  these  observations. 

Helix  aspersa,  Eggshell  of. — A  valuable  contribution  to  our 
knowledge,  and  quite  original.  To  extend  these  remarks  to  the 
eggs  of  other  Helices  and  Gasteropods  generally  would  be  nice  work 
for  our  members.  Has  the  action  of  acid  been  tried  on  these  crys- 
tals ?  Some  members  seem  to  have  very  vague  notions  of  the 
formation  of  shells  ;  these  should  read  carefully  Carpenter's  con- 
tributions to  knowledge  on  the  subject  in  his  Microscope  and 
Trans,  of  the  Brit.  Association ;  also  Bowerbank.  Rainey,  "On 
the  Formation  of  Shell  and  other  Hard  Structures,"  in  Quarterly 
Jour.  Micro.  Sci.,  republished  in  extenso  by  Churchill,  must  be 
carefully  studied.     He  was  a  splendid  worker. 

Tracheae  of  Scolopendra  has  been  coloured  apparently  by 
magenta,  to  make  it  look  pretty,  some  would  say ;  to  show  the 
parts  more  distinctly,  would  be  the  verdict  of  others.  This  would 
be  more  instructive  if  not  pressed  flat ;  the  specimen  does  not 
profess  to  show  the  spiracle,  the  most  interesting  part  of  it  in 
reality.  A  portion  of  it  is,  however,  there,  and  enabled  me  this 
morning  to  confirm  the  correctness  of  the  name  by  examining  the 
spiracle  in  the  specimen  of  the  "  Great  West  Indian  Scolopendra 


250  HALF-AN-HOUR 

morsitans^  whence,  no  doubt,  this  came.  The  large  size  of  the 
trachese  is  noteworthy,  and  I  think,  so  far  as  my  examination 
extended,  the  fibre  appeared  to  cease  in  the  tubes  much  earUer 
than  usual. 

B.  T.  Lowne  speaks  of  its  being  visible  in  the  Blow- Fly  {Miisca 
voinitorid)  in  tubes  down  to  the  calibre  of  i — io,oooth  of  an  inch 
{A?iat.  and  Physiology  of  Blow-Fly^  p.  26).  Mr.  Lubbock  has 
some  important  remarks  on  "  Tracheal  Tubes "  in  the  Linn. 
Titans,  of  some  10  or  12  years  ago. 

Lipeurus  baculus  (Plate  28,  Figs,  i — 5). — So  far  as  I  have  had 
the  opportunity  of  ascertaining,  I  believe  that  all  the  bird  pediculi 
feed  on  the  feathers^  with  which  their  stomachs  may  at  times  be 
found  to  be  crammed. 

Reference  to  H.  Denny's  "  Monographia  Anopliirorum  Brit- 
ajinice  "  would  teach  at  once  that  the  present  specimen  is  a  male. 
It  will  be  advantageous  to  compare  the  hooked  antennae  of  this 
species  with  other  examples  found  in  bird-lice,  and  these  with  cor- 
responding structures  in  spiders  and  many  Crustacea.  Feet  are 
not  well  shown  in  the  slide.  Spiracles  exceedingly  small.  I  think 
there  are  twelve  on  each  side.  Note  the  mouth-organs.  The  true 
homologues  of  them  offer  an  interesting  problem  for  solution. 
The  long  terminal  hairs  have  undoubtedly  important  functions  to 
discharge  of  a  sensory  nature,  and  may  be  well  compared  with  the 
tails  of  crickets  and  other  orthoptera.  I  think  Shakespeare  has 
an  interesting  allusion  to  the  important  uses  of  the  anal  setae  in 
the  cricket,  but  have  not  time  to  turn  it  up  just  now. 

The  bird-lice  have  not  such  "  sharp  claws  for  adhering  to  the 
skin."  "Their  mode  of  progression  is  rather  singular  as  well  as 
rapid.  They  slide,  as  it  were,  sideways,  extremely  quick,  from  one 
side  of  a  fibre  of  the  feather  to  the  other,  and  move  equally  w^U 
in  a  forward  or  retrograde  direction."  (Note  here  the  beautiful 
adaptation  of  the  limbs  for  such  use),  "  which,  together  with  their 
flat,  polished  bodies,  renders  them  extremely  difficult  to  catch  or 
hold." — (Mon.  Anop.  Brit.,  p.  166,  sub.  L.  Poly  trapezius.) 

This  description  is  highly  graphic.  The  Hce  of  the  common 
fowl  ( Menopon  pallidum)  are  sometimes  very  numerous,  and  then 
become  a  great  plague  to  those  who  have  to  pluck  the  birds,  irri- 
tating excessively  by  running  over  the  skin,  though  in  a  few  hours 
they  die  for  want  of  proper  food. 

Denny  says  of  L.  Baculus : — "  I  find  this  species  very  common 
on  all  varieties  of  pigeons,  and  living  in  society  with  Nirnuis 
clavifonnis  and  Goniocotes  covipar.  Few  birds,  indeed,  are  so 
infested  with  parasites  as  the  Columbidce-.  Besides  four  species  of 
lice,  I  have  found  a  large  Ixodes,  a  small  Acarus,  and  the  Pulex 
Columbcs;  and  the  Rev.  L.  Jenyns  has  detected  a  bug,  Cimex 


/^ 


Journal    of  Microscopy,  Vol.  3,  Pi. 


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AT  THE   MICROSCOPE.  251 

Columbarins^  described  by  him  in  the  "  Annals  of  Natural  His- 
tory^^  Vol.  5,  p.  242,  which  has  also  occurred  in  Dovecotes,  near 
Leeds  {Mon.  A7iop.  Brit,  p.  173). 

Here  is  interesting  work  for  the  microscopist  indeed.  I  do 
hope  some  of  our  members  may  be  induced  to  take  it  up,  and 
will  favour  us  by  '■^passing  them  rounds 

The  only  specimen  I  have  of  this  species  was  taken  off  a 
pigeon  which  fell  dead  (shot,  probably)  in  the  little  garden  at- 
tached to  the  house  I  was  then  residing  at,  in  Queen's  Road, 
Dalston,  now  some  30  years  ago.  I  just  mention  this  as  some 
little  encouragement  to  those  who  have  to  work  under  difficulties, 
as,  it  must  be  admitted,  Londoners  have  in  some  respects. 

Pupa-case  of  Ephemeron.— The  slide  I  myself  enclose  is  illus- 
trative of  one  stage  in  the  metamorphosis  of  a  small  species  of  Ephe- 
mera, or  May-fly.  These  occur  in  myriads  for  a  portion  of  the 
summer  near  two  large  sheets  of  water,  called,  in  the  homely 
phrase  of  the  place,  "  Frensham  Great  Pond  "  and  "  Frensham 
Little  Pond."  They  are  favoured  resorts  of  many  aquatic  insects. 
A  person  walking  near  these  lakes  when  the  insects  in  question  are 
coming  out,  may  find  him  or  herself  quickly  covered  with  the  small 
May-flies,  which  settle,  remam  tolerably  quiescent  for  a  time,  then 
wriggle  out  of  their  old  suit  of  clothes,  and  fly  away  in  a  brand 
new  one.  A  graphic  description  of  the  process  will  be  found  in 
Westwood'' s  "  Introduction  to  the  Modern  Classification  of  Lisects^^ 
vol.  2,  p.  27,  and  in  a  foot-note  a  discussion  of  the  nature  of  the 
metamorphosis. 

A  discussion  of  the  matter,  specially  as  a  microscopic  study, 
by  the  present  writer,  will  be  found  in  the  "  Trcmsaction  of  the 
Micro.  Soc.  of  London,''  Vol.  for  1866,  pp.  69,  70,  and  PI.  VIL,  and 
J.  W.  Lubbock  has  discussed  it  in  Clocon  dimidiatu7n,  in  the 
pages  of  the  Linnean  Transactions. 

TuFFEN  West. 


Sting  of  Scorpion.— I  read  with  interest  Tuffen  West's  remarks 
about  this  and  the  oxalic  acid  crystals,  or  isomeric  crystals.  He 
suggests  that  ''  the  fangs  of  Poison  Serpents  might  be  expected  to 
yield  similar  crystals." 

Some  years  since,  when  examining  the  structure  of  sections  of 
teeth-dentine  and  enamel  by  polarised  light,  my  brother,  F.  H. 
Balkwill,  supplied  me  with  a  poison-fang  of  a  viper  ;  this  I  pro- 
ceeded to  make  a  section  of,  in  the  course  of  which  I  observed 
that  it  was  a  tube  with  a  small  oval  aperture,  near  or  at  the  apex, 
I  think  the  former,  and  that  it  was  filled  with  semi-transparent, 
sub-quadrangular,  or  cubical  granules.      Unfortunately,  I  carried 


252  KE  VIEWS. 

the  grinding  operation  too  far,  and  just  rubbed  off  the  point  of  the 
tooth  with  its  aperture,  so  that  the  opening  now  to  be  seen  is 
merely  a  shghtly  transverse  or  obhque  section  of  the  tube ; 
however,  it  displays  the  structure  of  the  tooth  and  the  full  stream 
of  granules  by  which  it  is  fihed.  For  obvious  reasons  I  did  not 
attempt  grinding  the  opposite  side  of  the  tooth,  as  this  would 
probably  have  caused  the  loss  of  the  granules.  On  examination 
by  the  ^-in.  object-glass,  it  will  be  found  that  these  lie  super- 
posed, several  thicknesses  of  granules  in  depth.  Somewhat 
crystalline,  they  appear  less  sharply  angular  than  well  defined 
crystals,  and  not  much  longer  than  broad,  as  in  the  ordinary 
oxalic  and  prismatic  crsytals.  They  look  like  crystalline  stones, 
and  may  have  become  rounded  by  friction.  I  enclose  the  shde 
for  examination.  y.  P.  Balkwill. 


EXPLANATION    OF   PLATE   XXVIIL 


Fig.  1. — Lipeurus  Baculus  (Pigeon-Louse). 
2. — Antennitt  of    ^  . 
3. — Posterior  leg. 
4. — Antenna3  of    ^  , 

5. — Anterior  leg. 

After  Denny. 


6. — Outline  sketch  of  the  Fang  of  a  Viper,   x    25. 
7. — Portion  of  same,  showing  crystals  of  poison,  in  situ,  x  150. 

Drawn  by  Miss  B.  Bryant. 


1Rcv(ew6* 


Year-Book  of  the  Scientific  and  Learned  Societies  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  giving  an  account  of  their  Origin, 
Constitution,  and  Working.  Compiled  from  official  sources.  With 
Appendix,  comprising  a  list  of  the  Leading  Scientific  Societies 
throughout  the  world.     {^London :  Chas.  Griffin  and  Co.     1884.) 

We  have  for  years  felt  the  urgent  need  for  such  a  work  as  the 
present.  The  receipt,  therefore,  of  the  first  annual  issue  of  this 
work  gives  us  much  pleasure. 


REVIEWS.  253 

The  book  is  arranged  in  1 5  divisions,  embracing  the  following 
sections,  viz.  : — i. — Science  Generally;  £<?.,  Societies  occupying 
themselves  with  several  branches  of  Science,  or  with  Science  and 
literature  jointly.  2. — Mathematics  and  Physics.  3. — Chemistry 
and  Photography.  4. — Geology,  Geography,  and  Mineralogy. 
5. — Biology,  including  Microscopy  and  Anthropology.  6. — Eco- 
nomic Science  and  Statistics.  7. — Mechanical  Science  and  Archi- 
tecture. 8. — Naval  and  MiHtary  Science.  9. — Agriculture  and 
Horticulture.  10. — Law.  11. — Medicine.  12. — Literature. 
13. — Psychology.  14. — Archaeology.  15. — Foreign  Societies. 
Under  the  first  fourteen  sections  will  be  found  accounts  of  more 
than  five  hundred  Societies  actually  engaged  in  original  research 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  15th  section  comprises  a  list  of 
over  1,400  scientific  bodies  prosecuting  their  studies  in  foreign 
countries. 

From  the  care  taken  by  the  compilers  to  secure  particulars 
respecting  our  own  little  Society,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  stating 
that  we  believe  every  precaution  has  been  taken  to  ensure  accuracy. 


Plant-Life.  Popular  Papers  on  the  Phenomena  of  Botany, 
by  Edward  Step,  author  of  "  Easy  Lessons  in  Botany,"  etc.  Third 
edition.     {London:  T.  Fisher  Unwin.) 

This  book,  written  in  a  very  popular  style,  contains  chapters  on 
Microscopic  Plants,  Plant  Structure  and  Growth,  The  FertiUsation 
of  Flowers,  Predatory  Plants,  Remarkable  Leaves,  About  a  Fern, 
The  Folk-Lore  of  Plants,  Plants  and  Animals,  About  Mosses  and 
Lichens,  Plants  and  Planets,  About  Horsetails,  Stoneworts,  and 
Pepperworts,  The  Falling  Leaf,  About  Fungi,  Algae,  to  which  is 
added  as  an  Appendix,  a  Table  of  the  Cryptogamia  or  Flowerless 
Plants. 

The  work  contains  156  illustrations  by  the  author,  but  we 
are  compelled  to  suppose  that  they  were  not  engraved  for  the 
present  work,  as  we  find  that  no  notice  is  taken  in  the  text  of  a 
great  number  of  reference-letters  by  which  the  engravings  are  sup- 
posed to  be  explained.  There  is  a  chapter  on  Plants  and  Planets 
and  Plant  Folk-Lore,  which  tells  much  of  the  strange  beliefs  of  an 
inexact  and  superstitious  age. 


Geological  Rambles  Round  London,  with  25  illustrations 
and  sketch-maps.     {London  :  T.  Fisher  Unwin.) 

This  is  one  of  the  "  Half-Holiday  Handbooks,"  and  contains 
in  a  compact  form  a  great  deal  of  information  in  reference  to  Old- 
World  London,  the  object  of  the  work  being  to  condense  into  a 
small  compass   some   description   of  the  geological   features   of 


254  REVIEWS. 

London  and  its  immediate  neighbourhood.  For  this  purpose,  the 
area  has  been  narrowed  to  allow  of  all  the  sections  mentioned 
being  easily  visited  by  the  London  half-holiday  maker  during  the 
Saturday  afternoons  of  one  summer. 

The  other  works  of  this  series  are  also  of  a  very  interesting 
nature. 


Elements  of  Histology.  By  E.  Klein,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  etc. 
Third  edition.     {Lojidon:   Cassell  and  Co.     1884.) 

This  is  one  of  the  very  useful  "  Manuals  for  Medical  Students," 
to  whom,  from  its  convenient  size  and  compact  form,  it  is  very 
suited  to  form  a  pocket  companion.  For  easy  reference,  each 
important  paragraph  (upwards  of  five  hundred)  are  numbered. 
The  work  also  is  illustrated  with  181  well-executed  ens^ravinsfs. 

We  can  confidently  recommend  this  valuable  little  manual  to 
the  notice  of  all  our  readers  who  are  students  of  Animal  Histo- 
logy. The  well-known  repute  of  its  author,  Dr.  Klein,  is,  we 
venture  to  think,  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  its  excellence,  and 
renders  any  further  notice  of  the  work  on  our  part  unnecessary. 


We  have  received  from  C.  Henry  Kain,  Esq.,  Camden,  N.J., 
U.S.  America,  a  Photographic  copy,  on  the  reduced  scale  of  one- 
half  diameter,  of  the  very  important  "Atlas  der  Diatomageen- 
kunde  In  verbindung  mit  den  Herren  Griindler,  Grunow,  Janisch, 
Weissflog  und  Witt,  Herausgegeben  von  Adolf  Schmidt." 

Mr.  Kain  tells  us  he  was  induced  to  make  a  Ferro-prusiate 
copy  of  this  work  for  his  own  use.  He  has  since  supplied  as  a 
special  favour  copies  to  several  of  his  friends,  and  has  only  a  few 
now  remaining  on  hand.  The  style  of  the  blue  print  is,  of  course, 
not  to  be  compared  to  the  beauty  and  clearness  of  the  original 
plates,  but  they  are  sufiiciently  distinct  to  enable  the  microscopist 
to  identify  any  of  the  forms  represented. 

The  copy  now  before  us  consists  of  40  pages  of  letterpress  and 
80  plates,  all  in  Blue  Photography. 


The  Desmids  of  the  United  States,  and  List  of  American 
Pediastrums,  with  eleven  hundred  illustrations  on  fifty-three 
coloured  plates.  By  the  Rev.  Francis  Wolle,  Member  of  the 
American  Society  of  Microscopists,  Bethlehem,  P.A.  (U.S.A.), 
1884.      {Londo7i :  W.  P.  Collins,  i^y,  Great  Portland  Street?) 

This  magnificent  work  on  the  Desmidiace8s  of  the  United 
States  contains,  besides  the  fifty-three  plates  (each  of  which  is 
accompanied    on    the    opposite    page    by    a    descriptive    cata- 


REVIEWS.  255 

logue,  giving  names  of  species  represented,  magnification, 
etc.),  nearly  two  hundred  pages  of  descriptive  letterpress.  In 
these  we  have  first  a  list  of  authors  consulted,  followed  by  a 
few  pages  of  preliminary  remarks  on  the  Algae,  to  which  is  added 
instructions  on  "  How  to  Find,  How  to  Collect,  and  How  to  Pre- 
serve Fresh- Water  Algse."  The  author  next  confines  his  attention 
to  the  Desmid  group,  describing  their  methods  of  multiplication — 
ist,  by  cell-division  and  growth ;  2nd,  by  sexual  intervention  or 
regeneration.  The  major  portion  of  the  letterpress  is,  of  course, 
taken  up  with  a  full  and  careful  description  of  all  the  genera  and 
species  represented.  This  is  followed  by  an  index  to  some  500  or 
more  species. 

Although  the  work  is  believed  to  be  exhaustive  of  all  now 
known  concerning  the  Desmids  of  the  United  States,  yet  the 
author  regards  it  only  as  the  pioneer  to  others  much  larger,  and 
therefore  more  valuable,  wherein  will  be  recorded  the  achieve- 
ments of  those  who  will,  perhaps,  be  indebted  to  this  work  for 
their  first  introduction  to  so  fascinating  a  study  as  that  of  the 
fresh-water  Algce. 

The  whole  work  is  beautifully  printed  on  good  paper,  royal  8vo 
size.  The  plates  also  are  well  drawn  and  coloured.  It  is  unques- 
tionably the  best  work  of  the  kind  we  have  seen. 


The  Student's  Guide  to  Systematic  Botany,  including  the 
Classification  of  Plants  and  Descriptive  Botany.  By  Robert 
Bentley,  F.L.S.,  M.R.C.S.Eng.  {London :  J.  and  A.  ChurcJiill. 
1884.) 

This  little  work,  we  learn  by  the  preface,  is  intended  to  form  a 
supplement  to  "  The  Student's  Guide  to  Structural,  Morphological, 
and  Physiological  Botany,"  which  was  published  by  the  same 
author  a  year  ago,  and  being  well  adapted  for  carrying  in  the  coat- 
pocket  will  form  a  very  agreeable  travelling  companion  to  the 
botanical  student. 

The  first  and  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  work  (137  pp.) 
is  taken  up  with  the  Classification  of  Plants,  in  which  is  considered 
first  the  General  Principles  of  Classification  ;  second,  the  various 
Systems  of  Classification  ;  and  third,  the  Arrangement  and  Cha- 
racters of  the  Natural  Orders.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  book 
is  devoted  to  Descriptive  Botany.  Here  we  have  two  chapters, 
the  first  of  which  gives  Directions  for  Describing  Plants,  embrac- 
ing the  Means  for  Observing  them  and  General  Rules  for  their 
Examination ;  and  next.  Instructions  for  the  Examination  of  the 
Special  Organs  and  Parts  of  Plants,  with  a  List  of  the  Abbrevia- 
tions and  Symbols  used  in  botanical  works.     The  second  chapter 


256  REVIEWS. 

contains  full  descriptions  of  nineteen  important  Medicinal  plants 
which  are  all  common  either  in  a  wild  or  cultivated  state  in 
Britain,  and  may  therefore  be  readily  obtained  for  examination. 

We  heartily  agree  with  the  author  in  believing  "  that  the  pre- 
sent work  cannot  but  form  a  most  convenient  and  handy  little 
volume  for  use  abroad  and  at  home  by  medical,  pharmaceutical, 
and  all  other  students  who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  a  good  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  some  of  the  more  important  British  natural 
orders  and  their  medicinal  plants,  and  also  as  a  foundation  for 
further  study.  The  first  portion  of  the  work  is  illustrated  by  357 
engravings. 


The  Illustrated  Science  Monthly,  a  Popular  Magazine  of 
Knowledge,  Research,  Travel,  and  Invention.  Edited  by  J.  A. 
Westwood  Oliver.     {^London  :  David  Bogue.) 

It  is  almost  sufficient  to  read  the  headings  of  the  articles  in  the 
three  numbers  before  us,  with  the  names  of  the  authors  appended, 
to  judge  of  their  value  and  the  extent  of  ground  occupied  by 
them.  We  have  read  several  of  these  articles  with  much  interest. 
The  illustrations  are  well  drawn  and  clearly  explained.  If  any 
objection  is  to  be  found,  it  belongs  to  the  astronomical  maps, 
which,  with  their  rhomboidal  and  triangular  shaped  stars,  seem  only 
to  confuse  and  to  mislead  instead  of  making  the  various  magni- 
tudes plain  to  the  reader.  We  might  also  add  that  the  Rev.  J.  G. 
Wood  has  been  too  long  accepted  as  an  accurate  naturalist  to 
deserve  any  doubt  of  his  statements  of  the  occasional  strange 
tricks  and  doings  of  pet  animals.  With  this  exception,  we  like  the 
periodical  extremely,  and  wish  it  much  success. 


A  New  and  Easy  Method  of  Studying  British  Wild 
Flowers  by  Natural  Analysis  :  being  a  complete  series  of 
illustrations  of  their  Natural  Orders  and  Genera  analytically 
arranged.     By  Frederick  A.  Messer.     (Londo7i :  David  Bogtie.) 

That  illustration  is  a  more  powerful  as  well  as  a  more  alluring 
and  ready  means  of  imparting  knowledge  than  letterpress  by  itself 
will  not  be  doubted.  This  pictorial  method  resembles  more 
closely  than  any  other  that  which  is  naturally  followed  in  the  com- 
parative examination  of  the  parts  of  the  plants  themselves. 

This  book,  which  will  be  found  a  most  useful  work  by  all 
botanists,  commences  by  giving  a  very  full  glossary  of  botanical 
terms ;  then  follows  a  list  of  symbolic  illustrations,  abbreviations, 
etc.,  also  a  list  of  the  natural  orders  of  Flowering  and  Flowerless 
Plants ;  after  which  the  true  object  of  the  book  is  heartily  entered 
into,  not  only  the  various  classes  of  the  Vegetable  kingdom,  but 


REVIEWS.  257 

each  genera  being  diagrammatically  illustrated.  The  book  con- 
cludes with  a  chart,  showing  at  one  view  the  number  of  species  of 
plants  in  each  order,  a  catalogue  of  British  plants,  and  two  full 
indexes  :  one  of  orders  and  genera,  the  other  of  English  names. 

The  Methods  of  INIicroscopical  Research.  Studies  in 
Microscopical  Science.  Popular  Microscopical  Studies. 
Edited  by  A.  C.  Cole. 

This  excellent  series,  which  has  been  received  at  regularly  alter- 
nate weekly  intervals,  is,  we  much  regret  to  hear,  now  brought  to 
a  termination.  We  look  upon  these  handsome  volumes  with 
much  pleasure,  the  coloured  lithographic  plates  throughout  the 
whole  series  being  of  a  very  high  class.  The  slides  accompanying 
each  part  have  always  been  of  the  excellence  for  which  all  Mr. 
Cole's  productions  are  so  well  known. 

The  information  conveyed  in  the  "  INIethods  of  Microscopical 
Research  "  is  invaluable  to  the  practical  microscopist^  and  all  non- 
subscribing  microscopists  should  take  an  early  opportunity  of 
securing  the  bound  volumes,  which  are  now  being  offered  by  Mr. 
Cole. 


The  Sagacity  and  IMorality  of  Plants  :  A  Sketch  of  the 
Life  and  Conduct  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom.  By  J.  E.  Taylor, 
Ph.D.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  etc.  With  coloured  frontispiece  and  loo 
iUustrations.     (  Chaito  and  Wiiidiis^  Piccadilly.     1884.) 

This  book  is  wTitten  in  a  novel  and  extremely  interesting  style. 
The  attributing  to  members  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  contrivances 
and  instinct  and  thought  which  hitherto  have  been  spoken  of  as 
pertaining  to  the  animal  kingdom  alone,  is  not  only  novel,  but  also 
serves  to  render  more  attractive  the  contents  of  the  book.  Those 
contents  are  very  well  arranged,  and  the  style  is  so  clear  that  few 
will  fail  to  understand  and  to  profit  by  its  perusal.  We  have  very 
great  pleasure  in  recommending  the  book. 


Whence  ?  What  ?  Where  ?  A  View  of  the  Nature,  Origin, 
and  Destiny  of  Man,  by  James  Pv.  Nichols,  M.D.,  A.M.  Seventh 
edition.     (Boston^  U.S.A.:  Ciipples.,  Ujy/iam,  and  Co.     1884.J 

This  very  remarkable  book  is  well  worthy  of  careful  reading ; 
it  is  written  in  a  good,  comprehensive  style,  will  be  found  to  induce 
much  thought,  and  in  it  we  think  Dr.  Nichols  clearly  establishes 
the  fact  that  science  and  religion  are  not  necessarily  opposed.  We 
are  asked  by  the  publishers  to  state  that  a  copy  (in  paper  covers) 
of  "  AVhence  ?  What  ?  Where  ?  "  will  be  presented  to  every  new 
annual  subscriber  to  the  Popular  Science  Neivs. 


258  CURRENT  NOTES 

Popular  Science  News  and  Boston  Journal  of  Chemistry. 
{Boston,  U.S.A.)     August,  1884. 

This  is  a  popular  journal,  and  all  its  articles  are  plainly 
written.  Its  design  appears  to  be  to  furnish  in  a  compact  form,  and 
at  a  low  price,  the  new  facts  in  science,  mechanics,  art,  invention, 
agriculture,  and  medicine,  which  it  is  desirable  should  be  widely 
disseminated  among  reading  people. 


Current  IRote^  au&  flDemoran&a* 


The  Naturalist's  World  continues  to  give  a  series  of 
interesting  papers.  The  September  number  contains  the  conclud- 
ing part  of  a  paper  on  "  The  Preparation  of  Rock-Sections  for 
the  Microscope,"  etc.  etc. 


The  Microscopical  News  for  September  has  good  articles  on 
"Weevils,  Some  Free-swimming  Rotifers,  Bacteria,  etc. 


The  July  part  of  The  Journal  of  the  Quekett  Microsco- 
pical Club  commences  the  second  volume  of  the  second  series. 
It  is  an  excellent  number,  containing  good  articles  on  "  An  Unde- 
scribed  Species  of  Myobia  ;  On  the  Hexactinellidae ;  On  some 
New  Diatoms  from  the  Stomachs  of  Japanese  Oysters ;  Notes  on 
Mermis  Nigrescens ;  A  long  List  of  Objects  obtained  at  some  of 
the  Excursions ;  Proceedings  of  the  Meetings  held  in  April,  May, 
and  June,  and  is  illustrated  with  four  well-executed  lithographic 
plates. 


Science  Record  (Boston.  U.S.A.)  supplies  a  large  amount  of 
interesting  matter.  The  part  for  August  15th  has  papers  on  The 
Origin  of  Vertebrates ;  Sea-Cucumbers  (with  several  illustrations); 
Microscopical  Technique  at  Naples  in  1883  (part  4),  and  other 
papers. 


The  American  Naturalist  is  at  all  times  acceptable  ;  many 
of  the  articles  in  the  September  part  are  of  exceptional  interest. 
Our  space  will  only  allow  us  to  notice  one  or  two.     Of  these  the 


AND   MEMORANDA.  259 

chapters  on  The  Northernmost  Inhabitants  of  the  Earth  (with  21 
illustrations),  and  On  the  Condylarthra  (continued  from  August 
part,  with  28  engravings  and  3  plates)  are  deserving  special 
attention.  The  "  General  Notes,"  which  form  an  important  item 
in  each  issue,  are  of  much  value. 


The  Journal  of  Science  and  Annals  of  Astronomy,  Biology, 
Geology,  Industrial  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Technology ;  as  its 
title  implies,  covers  a  large  range  of  subjects.  Our  general  read- 
ers will  find  every  article  more  or  less  to  their  tastes. 


The  American  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal  for 
August  contains  the  following  amongst  a  series  of  good  papers  : — 
Growing  Slides,  or  Microscopical  Vivaria ;  Rapid  Method  of 
making  Bone  and  Teeth-Sections ;  Pond-Life  in  Winter ;  Micro- 
scopical Technic,  etc. 


The  ^Microscope  for  August  continues  its  joke  about  the 
"  Fakir's  Secret,"  and  tells  us  how  to  produce  "  Paste  Eels  " ; 
Studies  in  Histology,  Lesson  5,  is  on  Metallic  Stains  and  Mount- 
ing; A  New  Solid  Watch-Glass  is  described,  to  be  used  as  a 
staining  or  dissecting  dish,  etc.  etc. 

Cotton,  Wool,  and  Iron  comes  to  us  with  great  punctuality. 
We  are  glad  to  notice  that  the  editor  of  this  Journal,  as  well  as 
the  editor  of  another  important  Journal — The  American  Jour- 
nal OF  Fabrics — are  directing  their  attention,  in  real  earnest,  to 
the  microscopical  examination  of  fabrics.  In  addition  to  the 
purely  technical  articles  we  naturally  look  for  in  such  journals, 
there  is  an  abundance  of  interesting  matter. 


Apropos  of  our  article  in  the  current  part  on  the  "  Preparation 
and  Mounting  of  Diatoms,"  we  have  received  from  Mr.  C.  Henry 
Kain  a  double  slide  oi  Navicula  rhomboides^  the  diatoms  under  one 
cover-glass  being  mounted  in  Canada  Balsam,  those  under  the 
other  in  Balsam  of  Tolu.  We  are  struck  with  the  extra  clearness 
of  the  Tolu  mount,  although  the  medium  is  not  nearly  so  colour- 
less as  the  Balsam.  Mr.  Kain  does  not  give  us  the  formula  for 
preparing  the  medium. 


Van  Nostrand's  Engineering  Magazine  for  September  (New 
York,  U.S.A.)  contains,  in  addition  to  a  large  amount  of  informa- 


260  CURRENT  NOTES,   ETC. 

tion  specially  valuable  to  the  engineer,  several  articles  of  general 
interest — "The  Temperature  of  the  Sun,"  "The  Meteorology  of 
the  Great  Pyramid,"  and  several  others. 


We  have  pleasure  in  drawing  the  attention  of  our  readers  to 
Pease's  "Facility"  Nose-Piece,  an  engraving  of  which  we 
annex.  This  appliance  has  been  devised  to  facilitate  the  rapid 
interchange  of  objectives.  The  adapter  nose-piece,  A,  screws  on 
to  the  nose-piece  of  the  microscope  by  the  usual  society  screw, 
where  it  may  remain  permanently.  It  is  provided  with  mechanism 
similar  to  that  applied  in  the  self-centering  chuck.     By  the  partial 


rotation  of  the  milled  collar,  three  sections  of  a  flat  spiral  are 
made  to  act  upon  three  sprung  steel  teeth,  causing  them  to  project 
from  slots  within  the  cylinder,  or  to  return  to  their  normal  posi- 
tions at  will.  B  is  a  small  ring,  with  which  each  objective  must  be 
provided  ;  it  screws  on  the  objective,  where  it  may  remain,  and  on 
its  outer  edge  is  a  flanged  groove.  The  objective  having  the  ring 
B  attached  can  then  be  slid  into  the  "  Facility  Nose-piece,"  when 
about  one-tenth  of  a  turn  of  the  milled  collar  on  the  latter  causes 
the  teeth  to  grip  in  the  flanged  groove  B,  thus  securing  the  objec- 
tive in  place ;  the  reverse  movement  releases  the  teeth  from  the 
flanged  groove,  when  the  objective  will  drop  into  the  hand.  This 
useful  appliance  may  be  obtained  of  Mr.  Charles  Coppock,  loo. 
New  Bond  St.,  London,  W. 


Mr.  H.  p.  Aylward,  of  Strangeways,  Manchester,  has  sent  us 
a  new  pattern  Canada-Balsam  bottle.  It  is  fitted  with  a  tight- 
fitting  glass  cap,  and  is  provided  with  a  glass  dipping-rod.  The 
bottle,  which  is  of  one-ounce  capacity,  stands  very  firmly  on  a 
broad  foot. 

Also,  his  new  Universal  Camera  Lucida.  This  is  constructed 
on  an  entirely  new  principle,  and  will  fit  the  eye-piece  of  any 
microscope,  and  can  readily  be  adjusted  to  suit  any  power.  It  is 
provided  with  a  good  reserve  supply  of  all  shades  of  neutral-tint 
glasses. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  261 

Mr.  Aylward  has  lately  brought  out  a  Telescope  Walking-Stick 
to  use  with  his  Pond-Life  Apparatus,  which  will  be  found  a  great 
acquisition  to  the  students  of  fresh- water  organisms. 


Mr.  W.  P.  Collins'  October  Catalogue  offers  a  good  gen- 
eral selection  of  Scientific  books,  amongst  which  we  notice  many 
Botanical  Works,  from  the  library  of  the  late  Rev.  W.  A.  Leighton, 
with  several  other  rare  and  scarce  works. 

Microscopy  as  usual  forms  a  special  feature  of  this  catalogue, 
and  under  its  heading  will  be  found  a  long  hst  of  Journals.  Many 
works  on  Diatoms,  Desmids,  Algae,  Foraminifera,  etc.  etc. 


Correeponbence* 

The  Editors  do  not   hold  the7nsehes  responsible  for  the  opinions  or 
statements  of  their  Correspondents. 


To  the  Editor  of  the  Journal  of  Microscopy  aud  Natural  Science. 

Sir, — 

In  the  report  of  your  last  annual  meeting,  there  are 
a  few  remarks  by  Mr.  R.  Hitchcock  to  the  effect  that  in  the 
United  States  of  America  there  is  an  organisation  in  existence 
similar  to  your  Society.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  you  to  know 
that  in  this  part  of  the  world  an  attempt  is  being  made 
to  establish  a  similar  organisation,  only  that  at  present  it  is 
confined  to  the  chief  cities  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and 
South  Austraha.  We  made  a  commencement  by  sending  a  box  of 
objects  from  Melbourne  to  Sydney,  and  on  its  return  it  was 
accompanied  by  a  box,  the  same  as  is  used  by  your  English 
society,  containing  12  objects.  After  being  examined  by  our 
Melbourne  microscopists,  it  was  sent  on  to  Adelaide,  from  which 
city  it  is  now  returned,  together  with  copious  notes,  which  will 
be  returned  to  our  Sydney  friends.  It  is  not  quite  so  easy  to 
establish  an  organisation  like  this  as  it  is  to  you  in  England, 
since  each  of  the  cities  of  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and  Adelaide  are 
500  miles  apart. 

The  organisation  is  at  present  in  charge  of  the  following  mem- 
bers :— Mr.  F.  Kyngdon,  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Microscopical 
Section  of  the  Royal  Society   of  New   South  Wales*;  Mr.    H. 

*  Several  of  our  members  will  remember  Mr.  Kyngdon  as  an  old  and 
much-valued  member  of  the  P. M.S. — Ed. 


262 


NEW   BOOKS. 


Watts,  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents  of  the  Field  NaturaUsts'  Club 
of  Victoria ;  Mr.  \V.  E.  Pickels,  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Field 
Naturalists'  Section  of  the  Royal  Society  of  South  Australia. 

I  remain,  Dear  Sir,  yours  truly, 

Henry  Watts. 


NEW    BOOKS,     Etc,     RECEIVED. 

"Plant  Life,"  by  Edward  Step.     (T.  Fisher  Unwin,  London.) 

"  Desmids  of  the  United  States,"  by  Rev.  Francis  Wolle.  (W.  P.  Collins, 
London.) 

"  The  Official  Year-Book  of  the  Scientific  and  Learned  Societies  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland."     (Charles  Griffin  and  Co.,  London.) 

"  The  Elements  of  Histology,"  by  E.  Klein,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  etc.  (Cassell 
and  Co.,  London.) 

"The  Student's  Guide  to  Systematic  Botany,"  by  Robert  Bentley,  F.L.S., 
M.R.C.S.     (J.  and  A.  Churchill,  London.) 

"  Schmidt's  Atlas  of  the  Diatomacece  "  (photo  copy),  by  C.  Henry  Kain, 
Camden,  U.S.A. 

"The  Sagacity  and  MoraHty  of  Plants,"  by  J.  E.  Taylor,  Ph.D.,  F.L.S., 
etc.     (Chatto  and  Windus,  London.) 

"British  Wild  Plants  by  Natural  Analysis,"  by  Frederick  A.  Messer. 
(David  Bogue,  London.) 

"  Whence  ?  What  ?  Where  ?  "  by  James  R.  Nichols,  M.D.,  A.M.  (Popu- 
lar Science  News  Co.,  Boston,  U.S.A.) 

"  Popular  Microscopical  Studies,  Studies  in  Microscopical  Science,  and 
Methods  of  Microscopical  Research,"  by  A.  C.  Cole. 

"Geological  Rambles  Round  London."     (T.  Fisher  Unwin,  London.) 

The  Journal  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society. 

Science  Gossip. 

The  Illustrated  Science  Monthly. 

The  Journal  of  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club. 

The  Microscopical  News. 

The  Analyst. 

The  Naturalist's  World. 

The  Natural  History  Journal  and  School  Reporter. 

The  London  Medical  Record. 

The  Birmingham  Medical  Review. 

The  Dental  Record. 

The  Journal  of  Science. 

The  Gentleman's  Magazine. 

Golden  Hours. 

The  American  Naturalist. 

The  American  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal. 

The  Microscope. 

wScience  Record. 

Science. 

Popular  Science  News. 

The  American  Psychological  Journal. 

Van  Nostrand's  Engineering  Magazine. 

Microscopical  Bulletin. 

American  Journal  of  Fabrics. 

Cotton,  Wool,  and  Iron. 

Classified  Catalogue  of  D.  Appleton  and  Co.'s  Publications,  New  York. 

W.  P.  Collins's  Catalogue  of  Books. 


%i5t   ot  plates- 


Air,  Apparatus  for  the  Chemical  and  Micros- 
copical Examination  of    ...              ...     plate  19  page  182 

Choloepus  didactylus,  Teeth  of    ...             ...        „  17  „  163 

Cockroach,  Diagrammatic  Sketch  of  Gizzard  of    „  14  „  116 

Diamonds      ...             ...             ...             ...        ,,  10  ,,  92 

Foraminifera  ...             ...             ...         plates  i,  2,  3,  4  „  19 

Fox,  Dr.,  Apparatus  for  the  Chemical  Examin- 
ation of  the  Air                 ...             ...     plate  19  „  182 

Gizzard  of  Cockroach,  Diagrammatic  Sketch  of    „  14  „  116 

Glass  Larva   ...             ...             ...             ...       „  7  ?>  3^ 

Groundsel      ...             ...             ...     plates  11,  12  pages  loi,  103 

Ditto         ...             ...             ...         „      26,  27  „  237,  245 

Hydrozoa,  Development  of         ...             ...     plate  18  page  178 

Infusoria  from  Bristol   ...              ...             ...        „  15  „  i33 

Lipeurus  baculus            ..             ...             ...       ,,  28  „  250 

Megatherium,   Section   of  Upper   Jaw   and 

Teeth  of            ...             ...             ...        „  17  j?  163 

Microscopical  Examination  of  Air,   Appar- 
atus for              ...              ...             ...        }}  19  )?  1^2 

Ophion  luteum,  Details  of            ...             ...        ,)  14  n  n^ 

Peronospora  alsinearum                ...               ..        „  24  „  197 

ganglioniformis         ...             ...        „  22  „  „ 

infestans    ...             ...              plates  20,  21  „  „ 

nivea         ...              ...             ...     plate  23  ,,  „ 

parasitica  ...             ...             ...       a  22  ,,  ,, 

Psychoptera  paludosa   ...             ...             ...       )i  9  ;j  ^9 


264 


LIST  OF   PLATES. 


Rhingia,  Tongue  of 
Rhyncholopus  phalangioides 
Senecio  vulgaris 

Ditto     ditto 
Solarina  saccata 
Stylops 

Ticks,  Rostrum,  &c.,  of 
Tongue  of  Rhingia 
Tubifex,  Anatomy  of    ... 
Typha  latifolium.  Seed  of 
Uropoda  vegetans 
Viper,  Fang  of 
White  Mites 
Yeast,  Organisms  in 


...     plate     7   page     36 

„        8      „        42 

plates  II,  12  pages  loi,  103 

,,      26,  27       „     237,  245 

plate    5    page  128 


13    , 

,   108 

6   , 

33 

7  , 

,    36 

16   , 

,   147 

14   , 

,   116 

8   , 

42 

28   , 

,   250 

8   , 

42 

)) 

25  , 

,   214 

3n&ey  to  Dol.  III. 


Page 
AcARi  and  Minute  Insects  to  mount  in  Canada  Balsam       ...     67 
Acari  from  Chaffinch  ...  ...  ...  ...   190 

Address  of  the  President  at  the  Annual  Meeting,  1883        ...       i 
Address  by  Mr.  Arthur  Hammond  on  resigning  the  Chair,  1883    7 
Air  of  Washington,  an  Examination  of  the  External  ...    182 

American  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal,  the       ...  ...   259 

American  Naturalist,  the  ...  ...  ...     67,  128,  258 

American  Psychological  Journal,  the      ...  ...  ...     63 

Ammonium  Molybdate,  Results  of  a  Microscopical  Investiga- 
tion of  the  Action  of,  on  the  Vascular  and  Cellular 
Tissues  of  Plants 
Annual  Meeting,  our 
Antennae  of  the  Cockroach 
Argulus  foliaceus 
Ayhvard's  Canada  Balsam  Bottle 
Aylward's  New  Camera  Lucida 

-O  j\L^ll^J_4l  •••  ••■  ••  •••  ••• 

Bacilli,  Dr.  Burrill  on  Staining 

Bacilli,  Living,  in  the  Cells  of  Valisneria  spiralis  ... 

Bacteria  and  the  Yeast  Fungi,  a  Synopsis  of 

Baldness  and  Greyness 

Balkwill  and  Millett,  on  the  Foraminifera  of  Gahvay 

Bathes  of  Bath  Ayde  in  the  Reign  of  Charles  I  J. 

Bit  of  Groundsel,  a  ... 

Black-ground  Illumination 

Blow-fly,  Feet  of 

Bolton's  Portfolio  of  Drawings 

Bristol,  on  some  New  Infusoria  from 

Bugula  avicularia 

Burrill,  Dr.,  on  Staining  Bacilli 

Caligus  repens 

Canada  Balsam  Bottle,  Aylward's  new 

Carpenter,  Dr.  W.  B.,  Letters  to  the  Carlisle  Micros.  Society    129 

Carlisle  Microscopical  Society  ...  ...  ...122 


•••  155 

...  48 

...  120 

...  189 

...  260 

...  260 

...  131 

...  132 

...  17 

...  192 

...  193 

19,78 
...  64 

...  lOI 

...  247 

...  121 

...  128 

•••  ^33 

...  248 

...  132 

...  190 
...  260 

3  4  ii  (( 


266 


INDEX. 


Catalogue  of  the  Galway  Foraminifera,  a 

Caterpillar,  the  Tracheal  System  of  a 

Cercopis  sanguinolenta 

Cerura  vinula,  Foot  of  Larva  of 

Chaffinch,  Acari  from 

Chalcedony 

Circles  to  Cut  in  Glass 

Circopides,  Exuvia  of  Pupa  of 

Claws  of  Insects 

Cockroach,  Antennae  of 

Cockroach,  Gizzard  of 

Cockroach,  Head  of 

Collection  and  Preparation  of  the  Diatomace?e,  on  the 

Coombs,  Dr.,  Presidential  Address,  1883 

Corethra,  Larva  of    ... 

Correspondence 

Cotton,  Wool,  and  Iron 

Creese,  E.  J.  E.,  on  an  Inexpensive  Turn-table 

Crustacea,  on  the  Study  of  the  Larval  Forms  of   ... 

Current  Notes  and  Memoranda  ...  65,  129, 

Cutting  Glass  Circles 

Dermaleichus  passimus 

Desmids,  the,  of  the  United  States 

Diamonds  and  their  History    ... 

Diatomaceae,  on  the  Collection  and  Preparation  of     ... 

Diatoms,  Balsam  of  Tolu  for  mounting  ... 

Doherty,  A.  J.,  on  Solorina  succata 

Dytiscus,  Leg  of 

Earwig,  Exuvia  of  ... 

Eggs  of  Vapourer  Moth 

Egg-shell  of  Hehx  aspersa 

Elements  of  Histology,  Klein's 

Engineering  Magazine,  Van  Nostrand's 

Ephemeron,  Pupa-case  of 

Examination  of  the  External  Air  of  Washington,  an 

Exuvia  of  Earwig 

Exuvia  of  Pupa  of  Circopides 

Facility  Nose-piece,  Pease's  ... 

Feet  of  Blow-fly 

Feet  of  Insects 

Fish's  Nest,  a  Popular  Account  of  the    ... 

Fish  Scales,  W.  ColHns'  Slides  of 


Page 
...  85 
...  120 
...  116 
...  191 
...   190 

114,  119 
...  47 
...  190 
...  36 
...  120 
...  115 
...   115 

138,  229 
I 

•  ••     43 
...    T94 

196,  259 

...    106 

...    175 
195.258 

...     47 

...  44 
...  254 
92,  170 
138,  229 
...  259 
28 
...     36 

..  191 

...  190 

...  249 

...  254 

...  259 

...  251 

...  182 

...  191 

...  190 

...  260 

...  I2T 

...  121 

...  128 

...  130 


INDEX.  267 

Page 

Foot  of  Larva  of  Puss  Moth    ...              ...              ...  ...191 

Foraminifera  of  Galway,  the    ...              ...              ...  19?  7^ 

Foraminifera,  the  Arenaceous  Forms  of                 ...  ...     25 

Foraminifera,  the  Ectosolenian  Lagenae                   ...  ...     27 

Foraminifera,  the  Entosolenian  Lagense                 ...  ...     78 

Foraminifera,  the  Hyahne  Forms            ...              ...  ...     26 

Foraminifera,  the  Porcellanous  Group    ...              ...  ...     23 

Forster,  J.  A.,  on  Diamonds  and  their  History      ...  92,  170 
Fresh- Water  Mites,   the  Palpi  of,  as  Aids  to  Distinguishing 

Sub-famihes  ...              ...              ...              ...  ...     91 

Frog-Hopper,  Exuvia  of           ...              ...              ...  ...   190 

Galway,  the  Foraminifera  of ...              ...              ...  19378 

Gahvay  Foraminifera,  a  Catalogue  of     ...              ...  ...     85 

Gentleman's  Magazine,  the      ...              ...              ...  ...126 

Geological  Rambles  Round  London       ...              ...  ...253 

George,  C.  F.,  on  the  Palpi  of  Fresh-water  Mites,  as  Aids  to 

Distinguishing  Sub-families          ...              ...  ...     91 

Gizzard  of  Cockroach,  the       ...              ...              ...  ...   115 

Glass  Circles,  to  Cut                ...              ...              ...  ...     47 

Glass  Larva,  the       ...              ...              ...              ...  35,  43 

Grantia  compressa.  Spicules  of                ...              ...  ...   248 

Grenfell,  J.  G.,  on  some  New  Infusoria  from  Bristol  ...  133 
Griffin,   A.   W.,   on  the  Collection  and  Preparation  of  the 

Diatomacese  ...              ...              ...              ...  138,  229 

Groundsel,  a  Bit  of  ...             ...             ...             ...  ...   loi 

Hairs  from  Ornithorhyncus  paradoxus  ...              ...  ...191 

Half-an-hour  at  the  Microscope  with  Mr.  Tuffen  West  32,  113,  247 

Hammond,  A.,  on  Psychoptera  paludosa                ...  ...     69 

Hammond,  A.,  on  some  Further  Researches  on  Tubifex     ...   147 

Head  of  Cockroach  .. .              ...              ...              ...  ...   115 

Helix  aspersa.  Egg-shell  of      ...              ...              ...  ...   249 

Histology,  the  Elements  of      ...              ...              ...  ...   254 

Hydrozoa  and  Medusae            ...              ...              ...  ...   178 

Illumination,  Black-ground  ...             ...             ...  ...   247 

Illustrated  Science  Monthly,  the              ...              ...  63,  195,  256 

Inexpensive  Turn-table,  an      ...              ...              ...  ...    106 

Infusoria  from  Bristol,  some  New            ...              ...  ,..133 

Insects,  Claws  of      ...              ...              ...              ...  ...     36 

Insects,  Feet  of         ...              ...              ...              ...  ...    121 

Insects,  Minute,  and  Acari  to  Mount  in  Canada  Balsam      ...     67 


268  INDEX. 

Page 
Jeaffreson,  J.  B,,  on  Hydrozoa  and  Medusae      ...  ...   178 

Jersey  Natural  History  Depot  ...  ...  ...     66 

Journal  of  the  Quekett  Club,  the  ...    •         ...  ...   258 

Journal  of  Science,  the  ...  ...  ...  ...   259 


Kidder,  Dr.  J.  H.,  on  an  Examination  of  the  External  Air 
of  Washington 

Larva  of  the  Corethra 

Larva  of  Puss-Moth,  the  Foot  of 

Larva  of  Puss-Moth,  the  Pro-leg  of 

Larval  Forms  of  the  Crustacea,  on  the  Study  of 

Leg  of  Dytiscus 

Lett,  Rev.  H.  W.,  on  a  Bit  of  Groundsel 

Lipeurus  baculus       ...  ...  ■    ... 

Living  Bacilli  in  the  Cells  of  Valisneria  spiralis 


182 

43 
191 

117 

175 
36 

lOI 

250 
17 


Lovett,  E.,  on  the  Study  of  the  Larval  Forms  of  the  Crustacea    175 

Medical  Annual,  the  ...  -...  ...  ...   128 

Medusae  and  Hydrozoa  ...  ...  ...  ...    178 

Methods  of  Microscopical  Research,  the  ...     62,  127,  257 

Microscope  in  Palaeontology,  the  ...  ...  ...169 

Microscope,  the        ...  ...  ...  ...  ...   259 

Microscopical   Investigation   of  the   Action  of  Ammonium 

Molybdate  and  other  Chemical  Agents  on  the  Vascular 

and  Cellular  Tissues  of  Plants,  Results  of  a  ...   155 

Microscopical  News,  the  ...  ...  ...  ...258 

Mite  from  Pheasant  ...  ...  ...  ...     42 

Mites,   the  Palpi  of  Fresh-water,  as  Aids  to  Distinguishing 

Sub-families  ...  ...  ...  ...     91 

Mites,  White  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...     42 

Moore,  R.  H.,  on  Senecio  vulgaris         ...  ...  ...237 

Mounting  Minute  Insects  and  Acari  in  Canada  Balsam, 

Method  of     ...  ...  ...  ...  ...     67 

Mytilus  edulis,  Testis  of         ...  ...  ...  •••33 

Naphthaline          ...              ...             ...  ...  113,  119 

Naturalists'  World,  the              ...              ...  ...  65,  196,  258 

New  and  Easy  Method  of  Studying  British  Wild  Flowers,  a    256 

New  Forest,  Young  Ticks  from  the         ...  ...  ...     33 

New  Infusoria  from  Bristol,  On  some     ...  ...  "•   ^ZZ 

New  South  Wales  Postal  Microscopical  Society  ...   261 

New  York  Microscopical  Society             ...  ...  ...131 

Nomenclature            ...              ...              ...  ...  ...     40 

Norman,  George,  On  the  Peronosporae  ...  ...  186,  197 

Note-Books,  Selected  Notes  from  the    ...  ...  42,119,189 


INDEX.  269 


Page 


Oak  Branch,  Transverse  Section  of    ...  ...  ...     32 

Ophiocoma  neglecta  ...  ...  ...  114,249 

Ophion  luteus  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...   116 


Organisms  in  Yeast,  the 

Ornithorhyncus  paradoxus.  Hairs  from  ... 

Our  Annual  Meeting,  Report  of 

Paleontology,  the  Microscope  in 
Palpal  Organs  of  Spiders,  the 

Palpi  of  Fresh- Water  Mites,  as  aids  to  distinguishing  Sub- 
Families . 
Paulo wnia  imperialis,  the  Seeds  of 
Pease's  Facility  Nose-Piece 
Perkins,  V.  R.,  on  Stylops 


Peronospor^,  on  the  ...     '        ...  ...  186,  197 


Pheasant,  Mite  from 

Placing  Slides  in  the  Boxes,  on 

X icini,  x^iic  •••  •••  •••  •••  •••  •• 

Plant  Life  under  the  Microscope,  the  Wonders  of 

Poignand,  M.,  on  the  Microscope  in  Palaeontology 

Polariscope  Objects... 

Popular  account  of  the  Fish's  Nest 

Popular  Microscopic  Studies  ...  ...  ...     62,  12 

Popular  Science  News 

Postal  Microscopical  Society  of  New  South  Wales 

Presidential  Address  for  1883... 

Pro-leg  of  Larva  of  Puss  Moth,  the 

Pupa-case  of  Ephemeron 

Pupa  of  Circopides,  Exuvia  of  ... 

Puss  Moth,  Foot  of  Larva  of . . . 

Puss  Moth;  Pro-leg  of  Larva  of 

Psychological  Journal,  the  American 

Psychoptera  paludosa 

QuEKETT  Club,  the  Journal  of  the 

V^Lld  1^0  •■•  •••  •••  ««•  •••  •• 


214 

191 

48 

163 
46 

91 

247 

260 

108 


42 

32 

253 

193 
163 

47 

128 

257 
258 

261 

I 

117 

251 
190 

191 

117 

69 

25S 
132 


Ralph,  Dr.  T.  S.,  On  Living  Bacteria  in  the  Cells  of  Valis- 

neria  spiralis .. .  ...  ...  ...  ...     17 

Ralph,  Dr.  T.  S.,  On  the  Results  of  a  Microscopical  Investi- 
gation of  the  Action  of  Ammonium  Molybdate  and 
other  Chemical  Agents  on  the  Vascular  and  Cellular 
Tissues  of  Plants         ...  ...  ...  ...   155 

Report  of  our  Annual  Meeting  ...  ...  ...     48 


270 


INDEX. 


Reviews 

Rhingia,  Tongue  of 


Page 
62,  126,  192,  252 
...  ...     37 


Sagacity  and  Morality  of  Plants,  the 

Salmon  Disease,  the 

Salticus  scenicus 

Science  Monthly,  the  Illustrated 

Science  Record 

Science,  the  Journal  of 

Schmidt's  Atlas  of  the  Diatomaceae 

Scolopendra,  the  Trachea  of  ... 

Scorpion,  the  Sting  of 

Seeds  of  Paulownia  imperialis 

Seeds  of  Typha  latifoha 

Selected  Notes  from  the  Society's  Note-Books 

Senecio  vulgaris 

Sinel  and  Co.'s  Unmounted  Marine  Objects 

Skeletons  with  care  ... 

Slides,  Mr.  Tuffen  West,  On  placing  in  the  boxes 

Solorina  succata 

Spicules  of  Grantia  conipressa 

Spider,  the  Palpal  Organs  of  ... 

Spider,  the  Zebra  Hunting-     ... 

Spiders 

Sting  of  Scorpion     ... 

Student's  Guide  to  Systematic  Botany,  the 

Studies  in  Microscopical  Science 

Stylops 

Syritta  pipiens 

Testis  of  Mytilus  edulis  (tr.  sec.) 

Tick,  Young,  from  New  Forest 

Tolu,  Balsam  of,  for  Mounting  Diatoms 

Tongue  of  Rhingia,  the 

Tracheal  System  of  a  Caterpillar,  the     ... 

Tubifex,  Some  further  Researches  on     ... 

Turn-table,  an  Inexpensive 

Typha  latifolia.  Seeds  of 

Universal  Camera  Lucida,  Ayl ward's  New 
Uropoda  vegetans     ... 

Valisneria  spiralis,  Living  BaciUi  in  the  Cells  of 
Van  Nostrand's  Engineering  Magazine 


•••  257 
...  122 

...  38 
635  195^  256 
65,  258 
...  259 
...  254 
...  249 

ii3j  251 

...  247 

...  114 

42,  119,  189 

...  237 

...  196 

66 

...  32 

...  28 

...  248 

46 

...  38 

46 

1135  251 

•■•  255 

62,  127,  257 

...  108 

...  36 

••  33 

—  ZZ 

...  259 

•••  37 
...  120 

...  147 

...  io6 

...  114 

...  260 

•••  45 

...  17 

...  259 


INDEX. 


271 


Page 

Vapourer  Moth,  Eggs  of          ...              ...              ...              ...  190 

Vascular  and  Cellular  Tissues  of  Plants,  Results  of  a  Micros- 
copical  Investigation   of  the   Action  of  Ammonium 

Molybdate  on  the         ...              ...              ...              ...  155 

Vignettes  from  Invisible  Life  ...              ...              ...             ...  64 

Vine,  C.  A.,  on  the  Organisms  in  Yeast                ...             ...  214 


West,  Wm.,  Micro.  Slides 

West,  Tuffen,  Half-an-hour  at  the  Microscope  with 

Wheldon's  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Books 

Whence?   What?    Where?     ... 

White  Mites 

Winged  Atom,  the    ... 

Wonders  of  Plant  Life  under  the  Microscope,  the 


...  66 
32,  113,  247 

64 
...  257 

42 
...  191 
...  193 


Year-Book  of  the  Scientific  and  Learned  Societies  of  Great 

Britain  and  Ireland,  the 
Yeast  Fungi,  and  Bacteria,  a  Synopsis  of 
Yeast,  the  Organisms  found  in 
Young  Collector's  Hand-books 
Young  Tick  from  the  New  Forest 


252 
192 
214 

193 
Z2> 


Zebra  Hunting-Spider,  the 


38 


BATH  : 
CHARLES   SEERS,    PRINTER,   AEGYLE  STREET. 


ck/ 


^ 


MliWilA